The Winter War of 1939 between Finland and the Soviet Union raised many questions for both combatants. It started when the Soviet Union invaded Finland on 30 November 1939, just three months after the outbreak of World War II. The Soviet Union was seeking to expand its borders and establish a buffer zone for the city of Leningrad, which was under threat from the Finnish border. Despite the immense strength of the Soviet army and air force, they suffered severe losses and made little headway for the initial period of the war. This war raised many questions for both countries that had long-lasting implications for their political, economic, and social structures.

Right: A Soviet T-26 model 1937 advancing on the eastern side of Kollaa River. This photograph is in the public domain in Finland, because either a period of 50 years has elapsed from the year of creation or the photograph was first published before 1966. The section 49a of the Finnish Copyright Act (404/1961, amended 607/2015) specifies that photographs not considered to be "works of art" become public domain 50 years after they were created.Source: Wikimedia. In the Public Domain. Click to enlarge.

The war saw extensive battles in the Karelian Isthmus, Ladoga Karelia, Kainuu, Salla, and Petsamo in Lapland. The harsh winter weather, with temperatures as low as -43 °C (-45 °F), made it even more challenging for both the Finnish and Soviet armies. The Finnish army repelled the Soviet attacks for over two months, inflicting considerable losses on the invaders. The battles showed Finland's ability to fight back and defend itself against a much more prominent and advanced army.

The Soviet Union had initially intended to conquer all of Finland, but they failed to do so. They established a puppet Finnish Communist government and the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact's secret protocols to support this plan. Finland's resistance against the Soviet aggression was a significant blow to the Soviet Union's international reputation, and it hardened Western opinions of the Soviet military.

The Soviet military reorganized and adopted different tactics to overcome the Finnish defences. They renewed their offensive in February, and after the intense fighting that followed, Finland was left with no option but to sign the Moscow Peace Treaty on 13 March 1940. The treaty saw Finland cede 9% of its territory to the Soviet Union as they claimed it was necessary for their security. The Soviet gains exceeded their pre-war demands, and they acquired substantial territories along Lake Ladoga and further north. Finland retained its sovereignty and enhanced its international reputation.

The Winter War had a profound impact on Finland, and it was rather depressing. The country had minimal international support, and the German blockade had prevented most armament shipments from reaching Finland. There was a 15-month period between the Winter War and Operation Barbarossa, which started the Continuation War between Finland and the Soviet Union. It was a critical time for Finland to reorganize and improve its defensive capabilities.

Right: Soviet equipment and fallen soldiers at Raate Road, Suomussalmi. This photograph is in the public domain in Finland, because either a period of 50 years has elapsed from the year of creation or the photograph was first published before 1966. The section 49a of the Finnish Copyright Act (404/1961, amended 607/2015) specifies that photographs not considered to be "works of art" become public domain 50 years after they were created. Now in the U.S. Public Domain. Click to enlarge.

The Winter War resulted in significant losses on both sides. According to revised estimates by Finnish historians, 25,904 Finnish people died or went missing, and 43,557 were wounded. Finnish and Russian researchers estimate that there were 800 to 1,100 Finnish prisoners of war. The Soviet Union repatriated 847 Finns after the war. Air raids killed 957 civilians, and Finland had to cede all the ships of the Finnish Ladoga Naval Detachment to the Soviet Union.

For Finland, the Winter War raised fundamental questions about their national identity and security. Finland had only gained its independence from Russia in 1917, and the Winter War was the country's first major military conflict as an independent state. The rapid and unexpected invasion by the Soviet Union challenged Finland's sense of national sovereignty and exposed weaknesses in the country's military and political structures. As a result, Finland was forced to reevaluate its relationship with its powerful neighbor to the east.

Additionally, the Winter War raised questions about Finland's relationship with other European powers. Prior to the war, Finland had pursued a policy of neutrality that aimed to maintain friendly relations with both the Soviet Union and other European states. However, the war brought Finland into the center of international attention, and the country was forced to explicitly declare its position in the conflict. This question of neutrality would become a major issue for Finland throughout World War II, as the country attempted to balance its relationship with Germany and its desire to maintain a degree of independence from both Soviet and Nazi control.

For the Soviet Union, the Winter War raised questions about the effectiveness of its military strategy and political influence in Europe. The rapid and decisive victory that the Soviet Union had expected failed to materialize, and the conflict dragged on for several months with significant losses on both sides. This was a significant embarrassment for the Soviet leadership, which had hoped to demonstrate the strength of its military and intimidate other European powers.

The Winter War also raised questions about the Soviet Union's relationship with its neighbors and its ability to maintain control over its expanding empire. Finland represented a significant threat to Soviet security, as its proximity to Leningrad and the country's rugged terrain made it an ideal launching point for an invasion of the Soviet Union. The fact that Finland was able to resist Soviet aggression and remain an independent state was a significant blow to Soviet prestige in the region. On 13 December 1939, the Soviet Union was expelled from the League of Nations. Historian and author Sean McMeekin notes "Germany, Italy and Japan had at least the decency to resign from the League before committing flagrant aggressions." (McMeekin 2021, 130-131)

Bibliography

Edwards, Robert. The Winter War: Russia's Invasion of Finland, 1939-1940. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2009.

McMeekin, Sean. Stalin's War: A New History of World War II. New York: Basic Books, 2021.

Trotter, William R. A Frozen Hell: The Russo-Finnish Winter War of 1939-1940. Chapel Hill: Algonquin Books, 2000.