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DISTINGUISHED LECTURE SERIES: THE MEXICAN-AMERICAN WAR

THE MEXICAN-AMERICAN WAR · Published 4 September 2024 at 5:38pm EDT · COMMENT AND CONVERSATION

"Mexican-American War and Caste War: Coinciding Conflicts in the Gulf of Mexico, 1847" by Prof. Benjamin J. Swenson

ABOVE:The Capture of the City of Tabasco; Steamer Spitfire and Schooner Bonita, Second Battle of Tabasco, June 15, 1847. Lithograph drawing by Lt. Henry Walke, USN, appearing in Naval Portfolio: Naval Scenes in the Mexican War (New York: Sarony & Major, 1847), No. 7. National Museum of the US Navy, Library of Congress. In the Public Domain. Click to enlarge.

The Caste War of Yucatan (1847–1901), which erupted at the height of the Mexican-American War (1846–8) due to a myriad of internal and external events impacting the region marks a particularly tragic chapter in the history of ethnic conflict in the Americas. In 1816, Americans began fighting the Seminoles in Florida, and that conflict – fought in unfamiliar territory that favored guerrilla tactics – endured until 1858. The Yucatan peninsula, with its similar humid lowlands, rain, mud, and terrain that mitigated the effectiveness of the cavalry-centric warfare fought in much of northern and central Mexico, was larger and included a borderless frontier abutting the neighboring states of Guatemala and British Honduras (Belize).   ☞ Read the full article

FEATURE SERIES: NAPOLEON'S MILITARY MAXIMS 

EARLY MODERN AND NAPOLEONIC WARFARE: 1500-1815 · Published 29 August 2024 at 10:47am EDT · COMMENT & CONVERSATION

"Vive l'Empereur!: The Rise and Fall of Napoleon's Military Maxims" (Part 4 in a Series) by Michael G. Stroud

ABOVE: The Battle of Waterloo painting (oil on canvas) by William Sadler (1782–1839) completed in June 1815. Source: Wikimedia. Click to enlarge.

Two years later between 16-18 June of 1815 the ultimate folly would be that which has become synonymous with defeat and failure, Waterloo. The French army was reconstituted after the death knell that was the Russian Campaign of 1812, but it would never again be the Grande Armée of old, nor would its master. Failing to stem the inexorable tide of the over 300,000 troops of the Coalition armies of Austria, Prussia, Sweden, and Russia at the mammoth Battle of Leipzig from 16-19 October 1813, Napoleon was forced into what would become his first exile in May of 1814 to the tiny island of Elba off from the Tuscan coast.   ☞ Read the full article

DISTINGUISHED LECTURE SERIES: CLASSICAL MILITARY HISTORY 

CLASSICAL MILITARY HISTORY: c.1000 BCE-500 CE · Published 16 August 2024 at 3:28pm EDT · COMMENT & CONVERSATION

Focus on Elite Forces: “Guardsmen and Emperor-makers: Rome’s Praetorians” by Prof. Brian Todd Carey

ABOVE: Imperial equites singulares escort Emperor Trajan on his Dacian Campaign. Trajan’s Column, Rome. 

Rome’s first emperor Caesar Augustus (r.31 BCE-14 CE) created a personal bodyguard called the cohors praetoria or Praetorian Guard in 27 BCE consisting of nine double-strength cohorts to protect himself and ensure domestic tranquility after a century of Roman civil wars. The guardsmen were organized, trained, and armed like the regular legionaries, but were hand-picked veterans initially of Italian origin who were paid much more than normal Roman soldiers and received benefits after only sixteen years of service (instead of the normal twenty years). Moreover, the Praetorian Guard was the only fighting force stationed in Italy.    ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: WAR IN THE PACIFIC

WAR IN THE PACIFIC · Published 18 June 2023 at 8:59pm EDT · COMMENT

"15 September 1944: The 73-Day Battle of Peleliu Begins"

ABOVE: USMC Archives: First Wave Moves in for the Attack, Peleliu, 1944. "Pounding Peleliu-As supporting naval and air units pave the way with high explosives, Marine-laden assault craft form the first wave and move in for the attack on Peleliu." From the Photograph Collection (COLL/3948), Marine Corps Archives & Special Collections. OFFICIAL USMC PHOTOGRAPH.

The Battle of Peleliu was a pivotal moment in the Pacific Theater of World War II. Codenamed Operation Stalemate II, the battle was fought between the United States and Japan from 15 September to 27 November 1944. The objective was to capture the airfield on the small coral island, which was a part of a larger offensive campaign known as Operation Forager. However, the fierce resistance from the Japanese Army, which had developed new island-defense tactics and well-crafted fortifications, led to an extended battle. The 1st Marine Division led the American forces, and Major General William Rupertus predicted that the island would be secured within 4 days. However, the Japanese defenders fought with such ferocity and devotion to the Emperor that the battle lasted more than two months. The U.S. Army faced heavy casualties, with the island becoming known as the "Emperor's Island" due to the Japanese defenders' clung to their positions until death.   ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: THE U.S. CIVIL WAR

THE U.S. CIVIL WAR: 1861-1865 · Published 6 August 2023 at 8:27pm EDT · COMMENT

"17 September 1862: the Bloodiest Single Day in American History - the Battle of Antietam"

ABOVE: Battle of Antietam by Thule de Thulstrup, published by L. Prang & Co. Specifically, the charge of Iron Brigade near the Dunker Church, on the morning of September 17, 1862. Chromolithograph, U.S. Copyright Office reference G33115. In the Public Domain.

The Battle of Antietam, fought on 17 September 1862, between Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia and Union Gen. George B. McClellan's Army of the Potomac, remains one of the most significant battles of the American Civil War. It was the first major engagement in the Eastern Theater of the war to take place on Union soil and resulted in the bloodiest single day in American history, with a combined total of 22,726 casualties. Although the Union emerged victorious, the battle was somewhat inconclusive from a tactical standpoint, and the Confederates were able to withdraw their forces back to Virginia. However, the battle's outcome had significant political ramifications, as President Abraham Lincoln gained the confidence to issue the Emancipation Proclamation, declaring all slaves within Confederate territory to be "forever free."    ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: D-DAY & THE WAR IN WESTERN EUROPE

D-DAY & THE WAR IN WESTERN EUROPE· Published 19 June 2023 at 6:48pm EDT · COMMENT

17 September 1944: Jump to Tragedy: Operation Market Garden

ABOVE:The HQ Divisional Artillery of the 101st Airborne Division troops that landed behind German lines in Holland examine what is left of one of the gliders that "cracked up." Army Film and Photographic Unit : Smith D M (Sgt). This work created by the United Kingdom Government is in the public domain.

Operation Market Garden, one of the most ambitious military plans of World War II, was designed to bring the war on the Western Front to an end by the end of 1944. However, the operation turned out to be a costly failure that resulted in the loss of almost one-third of the British 1st Airborne Division, an American unit, and thousands of other Allied troops. The faulty planning, poor leadership, and unpreparedness led to the loss of thousands of troops, equipment, and supplies. The operation was too ambitious, and the risks that were taken were not justified. In detailing Allied losses at Market Garden, Rick Atkinson writes "... two thirds of those fighting for the 1st Airborne had been killed or captured, and the casualties included eight of nine battalion commanders and twenty-six of thirty rifle company commanders. Allied airborne losses in MARKET approached 12,000, more than half of them British; moreover, in 17,000 airsories, 261 planes and 658 crewmen were lost. Casulaties in Horrocks's XXX Corps totaled 1,500 plus 70 tanks. Cornelius Ryan, whose A Bridge Too Far remains the classic narrative of the battle, put total Allied losses at 17,000 in nine days. (Atkinson 2013, 286)   ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: THE U.S. CIVIL WAR 

THE U.S. CIVIL WAR 1861 - 1865 · Published 23 June 2023 at 11:50pm EDT · COMMENT

"19-20 September 1863: River of Death: The Battle of Chickamauga"

ABOVE: Battle of Chickamauga. 19407 U.S. Copyright Office. Copyrighted 1890 by Kurz & Allison, Art Publishers, Chicago, IL. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C. 20540. This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published (or registered with the U.S. Copyright Office) before January 1, 1928."

The Battle of Chickamauga, fought on 19 - 20 September 1863, was a turning point in the American Civil War. The Union forces, under Maj. Gen. William Rosecrans, were defeated by the Confederate Army of Tennessee, led by Gen. Braxton Bragg, in what would become one of the bloodiest battles of the war in terms of casualties. This battle marked the end of the Union offensive, known as the Chickamauga Campaign, in southeastern Tennessee and northwestern Georgia. The battle was a significant victory for the Confederacy, as it halted the Union's advance into southern territory and prevented them from taking the city of Chattanooga. It was also the first major battle fought in Georgia during the Civil War. The battle involved the second-highest number of casualties after the Battle of Gettysburg, with over 34,000 casualties and over 18,000 killed or wounded.   ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: WAR ON THE EASTERN FRONT

WAR ON THE EASTERN FRONT· Published 24 July 2023 at 9:37pm EDT · COMMENT

"30 September 1941: The Largest Battle Between Two Armies of All Time Begins: The Battle of Moscow"

ABOVE: Red Army soldiers man heavy artillery in front of the Red Army Theater at Ploshchad Kommuny on Suvorov Square.

The discourse amongst historians has revolved around identifying the turning points of World War II, spanning from 1941-42 to the spring of 1943. Winston Churchill considered the Battle of Kursk in 1943 following Stalingrad as the decisive moment. Richard Overy, on the other hand, believes that the years between 1942 and 1944 had several turning points, and specifically, 1943 and the Battle of Stalingrad. In his subsequent work, Overy acknowledges the significance of the Battle of Kursk that took place in July 1943 as the turning point of the War. Alternatively, Klaus Reinhardt argues that it was the Siege of Moscow that led to the ultimate failure and collapse of the Wehrmacht. Notably, regardless of one's stance in this debate, the Battle for Moscow holds tremendous importance in World War II's historic narrative, given its epic scale and impact. (Stahel 2009, 24-25)     ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: MODERN WAR AND CONFLICT

MODERN WAR AND CONFLICT · Published 25 February 2023 at 4:47pm EDT · COMMENT

"3 October 1993: Black Hawk Down - The Battle of Mogadishu"

Mogadishu, Somalia. 3 October 1993. Operation Code Irene: the Battle of Mogadishu. Members (crouched along the walls and building) of Task Force Ranger under fire in Somalia. U.S. Army Rangers Photo. Source: Wikimedia. In the Public Domain. Click to enlarge.

The Battle of Mogadishu, also known as the Black Hawk Down incident and in Somali as Maalintii Rangers ('Day of the Rangers'), was a significant conflict during Operation Gothic Serpent. It took place on 3-4 October 1993, in Mogadishu, Somalia, and saw United States forces, under the support of UNOSOM II, engage with the Somali National Alliance (SNA) and local militia from southern Mogadishu. In 1992, the U.S., in partnership with the U.N., launched a humanitarian mission to address the severe famine in Somalia. This effort quickly escalated into a conflict when militias under Somali warlord Mohamed Farrah Aidid began assaulting and killing U.N. peacekeepers. Consequently, the mission, renamed Operation Gothic Serpent, redirected Task Force Ranger to prioritize the capture of Aidid and his chief lieutenants.   ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: WORLD WAR II - AERIAL WARFARE

AERIAL WARFARE THROUGOUT HISTORY ·  Published 16 October 2022 at 12:59pm EDT · COMMENT

"14 October 1943: The Second Schweinfurt Raid (Black Thursday)"

ABOVE: 9 October 1943: B-17 Bomber during the first big raid on Germany by the U.S. 8th Air Force. The raid destroyed most of the Marienburg Focke-Wulf aircraft factory. Source: War History Network license. Click to enlarge.

The Second Schweinfurt Raid, also known as "Black Thursday," occurred on 14 October 1943, during World War II. This air battle took place over Nazi Germany and involved the United States 8th Air Force and the German Luftwaffe fighter arm (Jagdwaffe). The objective was a strategic bombing raid on ball bearing factories in Schweinfurt, which were crucial for the production of war machinery. This attack followed an earlier mission in August, known as the Schweinfurt–Regensburg mission, which, according to American wartime intelligence, had reduced bearing production by 34 percent but at a significant cost to American bombers. A subsequent raid was postponed as American forces needed time to rebuild.   ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: WORLD WAR II

WAR IN THE PACIFIC · Published 4 July 2023 at 9:08pm EDT · COMMENT

"23-26 October 1944: End of the Japanese Navy - The Naval Battle of Leyte Gulf"

ABOVE: Task Group 38.3 entering Ulithi anchorage after the Philippine invasion and Battle of Leyte Gulf. Source: War History Network license.

During World War II, Japan suffered defeat in the Pacific in part due to decisive victories of the U.S. Navy's aircraft carriers. These carriers proved to be an indispensable asset for the U.S. military, enabling it to establish supremacy over the seas and project military power across vast distances. The Pacific battles fought between the U.S. and Japan were characterized by fierce naval combat, with the Americans leveraging their superior technology and tactics to outmaneuver and overpower their opponents. The use of aircraft carriers enabled the U.S. to launch devastating aerial attacks on enemy ships and shore installations, paving the way for a successful military campaign in the Pacific. The Naval Battle of Leyte Gulf was the largest naval battle in World War II and one of the largest in history and a decisive victory for the Allies, and it had far-reaching implications for the course of the War in the Pacific.    ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: EARLY MODERN AND NAPOLEONIC WARFARE: 1500-1815

EARLY MODERN AND NAPOLEONIC WARFARE: 1500-1815 · Published 9 September 2023 at 4:05pm EDT · COMMENT

"24 October 1648: End of The Thirty Years' War: The Peace of Westphalia is signed" 

ABOVE: Muenster, Germany: 30 April 2022. View to the room called Friedenssaal ("Peace Room"), where the Peace of Westphalia was signed. Source: War History Network license. Click to enlarge.

The Peace of Westphalia is one of the most significant events in European history, marking the end of the Thirty Years' War. The two peace treaties were signed in October 1648, in the Westphalian cities of Osnabruck and Munster. These treaties ended a catastrophic period of European history that killed around eight million people, bringing peace to the Holy Roman Empire. The negotiation process was lengthy and complex, taking place in two cities because each side wanted to meet on territory under its own control. In this article, we will delve into the history of the Thirty Years' War, the circumstances surrounding the Peace of Westphalia, and its impact on modern international relations.   ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: THE VIETNAM WAR

THE VIETNAM WAR ERA: 1955 - 1975 · Published 24 September 2023 at 2:02pm EDT · COMMENT

"26 October 1967: Years of Enduring Torment: Lieutenant Commander John McCain, USN Shot Down over Hanoi"

ABOVE: Lieutenant John McCain (O3) with his squadron. This United States Congress image is in the public domain. 

Known in recent years before his death in 2018 as a 'maverick' politician, the late Arizona senator was a U.S. Navy pilot whose five-and-a-half year struggle as a POW in North Vietnam became legendary. John Sidney McCain III was born on 29 August 1936, in the Panama Canal Zone. Growing up in a military family, he was exposed to the navy life at an early age. McCain's father and grandfather were both four-star admirals in the U.S. Navy, and he followed their footsteps to the U.S. Naval Academy at Annapolis, Maryland, where he graduated in 1958. His father John S. McCain Jr. reached the rank of admiral and served in World War II, Korean War, and the Vietnam War. His grandfather, John S. McCain Sr. served in both World War I and II. During the Vietnam War, he volunteered for combat duty and served as a ground-attack pilot.   ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: THE NORTH AFRICA CAMPAIGN

NORTH AFRICA CAMPAIGN · Published 11 Nov 2022 at 2:45pm EDT · COMMENT

"8-16 November 1942: Operation Torch: The Allied Invasion of North Africa"

ABOVE: Douglas SBD-3 Dauntless scout bombers and Grumman F4F-4 Wildcat fighters on the flight deck of USS Santee (ACV-29) during Operation Torch. Note the yellow Operation Torch markings visible around the fuselage stars of some of these airplanes. Also note the distance and target information temporarily marked on the carrier's flight deck (80-K-15250). In the Public Domain; click to enlarge.

Initiated in November 1942, Operation Torch was conceived as a grand strategy to diminish Axis forces’ engagement on the Eastern Front, thereby alleviating the escalating pressure on the Soviet Union. This ambitious offensive represented a strategic compromise between the United States and Great Britain, with British authorities espousing apprehensions that a direct American-supported landing in Northern Europe would precipitate a premature and potentially catastrophic engagement. The operation was meticulously orchestrated to execute a pincer movement. Tasked with establishing bridgeheads on both the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts were the U.S. Western Task Force—targeting Safi, Fedala, and Mehdia–Port Lyautey in Morocco—and the Anglo-American Center and Eastern Task Forces—aiming for Oran and Algiers in Algeria, respectively. Complementing these efforts was a battalion-level airborne operation near Oran, designed to secure two strategic airfields. The overarching aim was to forge a second front that would be detrimental to the Axis forces occupied with British opposition in Libya and Egypt. Prevailing over resistance posed by Vichy French forces, which were ostensibly neutral yet potentially sympathetic to German interests, was paramount.   ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: WORLD WAR I

WORLD WAR I · Published 21 September 2023 at 9:51pm EDT · COMMENT

"11 November 1918: The Great War Ends and Another War Readies"

ABOVE: Photo Credit: USAMHI Marshal Foch's Train. This train car was used to hold negotiations with the Germans and where the armistice was signed at 5 a.m., on Nov. 11, 1918. (WWI Signal Corps Collection). This file is a work of a U.S. Army soldier or employee, taken or made as part of that person's official duties. As a work of the U.S. federal government, it is in the public domain in the United States. Source: Wikimedia. Click to enlarge.

The Armistice of 11 November 1918 marked a historic moment in world history, as it brought an end to the First World War, or World War I, that had ravaged large parts of Europe and beyond. The signing of the armistice was a significant moment for the Entente, which had been engaged in a bitter struggle against the Central Powers, led by Germany. The truce was signed at Le Francport near Compiegne, following negotiations initiated by the German government with the American President Woodrow Wilson. The basis for the ceasefire was the earlier declared "Fourteen Points" by President Wilson, which later formed the basis of the German surrender at the Paris Peace Conference the following year.   ☞  Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: THE VIETNAM WAR ERA: 1955-1975

THE VIETNAM WAR ERA: 1955-1975 · Published 31 October 2023 at 8:50pm EDT · COMMENT

"14-18 November 1965: The U.S. Army's First Major Fight in Vietnam - The Battle of Ia Drang Valley"

ABOVE: 2nd Lt. R. C. "Rick" Rescorla moves carefully with fixed bayonet through the underbrush in an attack of North Vietnamese sniper pockets outside the American perimeter in the Ia Drang Valley on Nov. 16, 1965 during the Vietnam War. The soldier is a member of one of the hardest hit companies of the 1st Cavalry Division units. (AP Photo/Peter Arnett) In the Public Domain.

The Battle of Ia Drang was a significant engagement that is notable for being the first major battle between the United States Army and the People's Army of Vietnam. The battle was part of the Pleiku Campaign conducted early in the Vietnam War at the eastern foot of the Chu Pong Massif in the central highlands of Vietnam in 1965. The battle is significant because it set the blueprint for the Vietnam War, with the U.S. forces relying on air mobility, artillery fire, and close air support, while the PAVN neutralized that firepower by quickly engaging American forces at very close range.   The Battle of Ia Drang formed part of the wider Operation Silver Bayonet, a US military offensive designed to search and destroy NVA forces in the central highlands of Vietnam. The goal of the operation was to clear the Chu Pong Massif, a range of hills located on the border of Vietnam and Cambodia, of NVA troops. The U.S. military hoped that the successful execution of the operation would prevent the establishment of a permanent NVA base in the region and eventually lead to the downfall of the North Vietnamese communist regime.Ia Drang comprised two main engagements, centered on two helicopter landing zones, the first known as LZ X-Ray, followed by LZ Albany, farther north in the Ia Drang Valley   ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: WAR IN THE PACIFIC

WAR IN THE PACIFIC · Published 4 August 2023 at 9:52pm EDT · COMMENT

"20-23 November 1943: Three Days of Hell - The Battle of Tarawa"

ABOVE: Marines Run Around Barbed Wire, Tarawa, November 1943. "Barbed Wire Doesn't Stop Them-A Marine with fixed bayonet leads others around a barbed wire entanglement on the beach at Tarawa as the Marines took the island. Grim determination is etched on the leader's face as he carries his rifle in the crook of his arm instead of in his wounded hand." From the Julian C. Smith Collection (COLL/202), Marine Corps Archives & Special Collections. OFFICIAL USMC PHOTOGRAPH

The Battle of Tarawa, fought on 20-23 November 1943, was another turning point in the Allied campaign against Japan during World War II. Tarawa, an atoll in the Gilbert Islands, was the most fortified island that the Americans attempted to invade during the Pacific Campaign. The Japanese garrison at Betio, the main island of Tarawa, was heavily fortified with concrete bunkers, seawalls, trenches, and an airstrip, supported by a variety of artillery including heavy and light machine guns and light tanks. Betio Island was tiny however at less than one square mile. Japanese Admiral Keiji Shibasaki was confident that the Americans couldn't take the island even with "a million men fighting for a hundred years could not take it." (Symonds 2018, 491)   ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: THE KOREAN WAR 1950-1953

THE KOREAN WAR 1950-1953 · Published 11 Aug 2023 at 8:21pm EDT · COMMENT

"27 November 1950: The Frozen Chosin; The Battle of the Chosin Reservoir Begins"

ABOVE: Marines Clear a Ridge. 6 December 1950. Infantry of RCT-7 moving up a ridge to clear it of enemy." From the Oliver P. Smith Collection (COLL/213), Marine Corps Archives & Special Collections. OFFICIAL USMC PHOTOGRAPH.

The Battle of Chosin Reservoir took place in the harsh and freezing winter of 1950, when the People’s Volunteer Army (PVA) of China entered the war to counter the presence of United Nations Command (UNC) troops in North Korea. The Chinese force, numbering around 120,000, launched a surprise attack on the US X Corps, an element of the larger UNC contingent, that was stationed near the Chosin Reservoir. The battle had become one of the toughest and most infamous battles for the U.S. Marine Corps since World War II. Fought over brutal mountain terrain and extreme cold weather in North Korea, temperatures had reached -36 degrees Fahrenheit causing frostbite casualties. Controversy had come to shroud the fight at Chosin Reservoir, as most marines saw the drive to the Reservoir as a fatal error. Either a 'fighting retreat' or 'attack in another direction', the First Marine Division fought gallantly, fighting through seven Chinese divisions and elements of three others. "General Song's Ninth Army Group had been rendered ineffective as a fighting force. Two of his divisions were entirely destroyed, never to be seen on a battlefield again. Song lost an estimated 30,000 killed in action and 12,500 wounded. The Marines lost 750 dead, 3,000 wounded and just under 200 missing. (Sides 2018, 326-327)   ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: THE EASTERN FRONT - WORLD WAR II

THE EASTERN FRONT · Published 26 August 2023 at 9:23pm EDT · COMMENT

"30 November 1939 to 13 March 1940: Failed Cold-Weather Gamble: The Winter War between Finland and the Soviet Union"

ABOVE: A Finnish Maxim M/32-33 machine gun nest 100 metres from Soviet forces during the Winter War, located approximately 5 kilometres north of Lemetti (area of the modern Pitkyarantsky District, Russia). This photograph is in the public domain in Finland, because either a period of 50 years has elapsed from the year of creation or the photograph was first published before 1966.

The Winter War of 1939 between Finland and the Soviet Union raised many questions for both combatants. It started when the Soviet Union invaded Finland on 30 November 1939, just three months after the outbreak of World War II. The Soviet Union was seeking to expand its borders and establish a buffer zone for the city of Leningrad, which was under threat from the Finnish border. Despite the immense strength of the Soviet army and air force, they suffered severe losses and made little headway for the initial period of the war. This war raised many questions for both countries that had long-lasting implications for their political, economic, and social structures.    ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: THE U.S. CIVIL WAR - 1861-1865

U.S. CIVIL WAR AND RECONSTRUCTION · Published 30 September 2023 at 3:25pm EDT · COMMENT

"11 December 1862: Failed Union Leadership in Virginia: The Battle of Fredericksburg Begins"

Battle of Fredericksburg: The Army of the Potomac crossing the Rappahannock: in the morning of December 13, 1862, under the command of Generals Burnside, Sumner, Hooker & Franklin. Kurz & Allison, Art Publishers, Chicago, U.S., copyrighted 1888. Source: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C. Public Domain (copyright expired). Click to enlarge.

The Battle of Fredericksburg was one of the bloodiest battles of the American Civil War, fought from 11 December to 15 December 1862, in and around Fredericksburg, Virginia. The Union army, led by General Ambrose Burnside, suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of Confederate General Robert E. Lee's forces. The battle was fought in the Eastern Theater of the Civil War, and the two armies represented the largest number of armed men that had ever confronted each other. The battle was fought between the Union Army of the Potomac, commanded by Major General Ambrose Burnside, and the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia, commanded by General Robert E. Lee.   ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: LENINGRAD AND THE EASTERN FRONT

THE EASTERN FRONT · Published 14 October 2023 at 7:33pm EDT · COMMENT

"27 January 1944: 872 Days of Starvation and Death - The Siege of Leningrad Ends"

Right: Leningrad, Soviet Union. September 1941. German soldiers in front of burning houses and a church. Source: Wikimedia. Click to enlarge.

The Siege and Battle for Leningrad (8 September 1941 – 27 January 1944) were events of enormous significance, yet they are often overlooked in the history of World War II. This was a microcosm of the War on the Eastern Front, an epic clash that had far-reaching implications for both the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany. In September 1941, Nazi Germany launched Operation Barbarossa, with the primary objective of capturing Leningrad, which was situated in the north. Hitler's strategy was to clear his Baltic flank and link up with Finnish troops, downplaying the importance of Moscow despite the objections of his army commanders. Army Group North's goal was to encircle, blockade, starve and ultimately destroy and level the city.   ☞ Read the full article