The Hundred Years' War (1337-1453) was one of the most significant conflicts in the Middle Ages, spanning over 116 years and involving five generations of kings from two rival dynasties. This war was fought between the Kingdom of France and the Kingdom of England, ultimately leading to five generations of kings from two rival dynasties vying for the French throne. It was what historian Norman Davies observes as "... above all, an orgy of what later generations were to judge most despicable about 'medievalism'--endless killings, witless superstition, faithless chivalry, and countless particular interests pursued without regard to common weal." (Davies 1996, 419)

The war resulted in the rise of national identities, the decline of chivalry, and the emergence of professional standing armies and artillery that permanently altered warfare in Europe. The war originated from England's claims to the French throne and escalated into a broader power struggle involving factions from across Western Europe, fueled by emerging nationalism on both sides.

The periodization of the war takes place over three main phases, separated by truces: the Edwardian War, the Caroline War, and the Lancastrian War. The war had a lasting effect on European history and produced innovations in military technology and tactics that permanently changed warfare in Europe. The use of professional standing armies and artillery were just some of the everlasting contributions of this conflict.

During the war, chivalry reached its height, but subsequently declined. Stronger national identities took root in both countries, which became more centralized and gradually rose as global powers. Despite both sides drawing in many allies into the conflict, the English forces initially prevailed. But, the French forces under the House of Valois ultimately retained control over the Kingdom of France. The French and English monarchies, previously intertwined, thereafter remained separate.

The root causes of the conflict can be traced back to the crisis of fourteenth-century Europe. The French and English monarchies' tensions had existed for centuries, dating back to William the Conqueror's Norman conquest of England in 1066. English monarchs held titles and lands within France, which made them nominal vassals to the French kings, creating a historically contentious arrangement. French monarchs feared the growth of English power and frequently attempted to strip away English holdings in moments of weakness e.g., whenever England warred with Scotland. By 1337, the English only had the Gascony region remaining under their control.

Top photo: The Battle of Formigny, by Martial d'Auvergne, illumination from the book Vigiles de Charles VII, Paris, France, 15th century. Source: Wikipedia; Public Domain, click to enlarge.

Middle photo: Paris, France, 22 July 2012. Statue of Joan of Arc, on her horse in front of Saint-Augustin Church in Paris, France, is considered a hero of her country for her role in the Hundred Years War against the English. Joan of Arc led the French army to several important victories during the Hundred Years' War. Source: War History Network license. Click to enlarge.

Bottom photo: Sussex, United Kingdom, 9 July 2013: Moated castle Bodiam near Robertsbridge in East Sussex, England was built in 1385 to defend the area against French invasion during the Hundred Years' War. Source: War History Network license. Click to enlarge.

In 1328, Charles IV of France died without any son or brother, and according to a new principle known as Salic law, female succession was disallowed. Charles's closest male relative was Edward III of England, whose mother, Isabella, was Charles's sister. Isabella claimed the French throne on behalf of her son, citing the rule of proximity of blood. However, the French nobility rejected this argument, citing the inability to transfer a right she (Isabella) did not possess. An assembly of French barons concluded that a native Frenchman, Philip, Count of Valois, should receive the crown, leading to Edward renouncing his claim in exchange for retaining control of Gascony.

In 1337, a series of disagreements between Edward and the French crown saw Gascony returned to French control. This prompted Edward to renew his claim for the French throne by force of arms. Thus began the Hundred Years' War, which would stretch for over a century through three distinct phases – the Edwardian War (1337-1360), the Caroline War (1369-1389), and the Lancastrian War (1415-1453), separated by various truces. The throne passed instead to Charles's patrilineal cousin, Philip, Count of Valois. Edward protested but ultimately submitted and did homage for Gascony. However, further French disagreements with Edward induced Philip, during May 1337, to meet with his Great Council in Paris. It was agreed that Gascony should be taken back into Philip's hands, which prompted Edward to renew his claim for the French throne, this time by force of arms.

Despite the conflict emerging from a dynastic dispute, what ensued was a series of protracted wars that stretched over a century. The Hundred Years' War marked a defining moment in both the military and political history of Europe. The war saw the beginning of a transition from feudal armies comprising of knights and footmen to the development of standing professional armies. As the war progressed, both sides made significant advancements in military technology. England was renowned for its archers, while France developed a new form of artillery used extensively in the latter stages of the conflict.

The Hundred Years' War was characterized by many commanders and leaders, with the French forces being led by Philip VI, John II, Charles V, Charles VI, Charles VII, amongst other notable figures. Similarly, Edward III, Edward of Woodstock (eldest son of Edward III), also known as the 'Black Prince', Richard II, Henry IV, Henry V, and Henry VI were the commanders leading the English forces. Other figures includes Joan of Arc the French heroine who helped legitimize Charles VII's reign through her victories in battle. The Hundred Years' War had a lasting impact, with both France and England emerging as stronger, more centralized nations. The war also saw the decline of chivalry and the rise of nationalism. The conflict between these two powers shaped the future of Europe and paved the way for a new era of power politics and international relations.

The Hundred Years' War was a defining moment in European history, borne out of a dynastic dispute that would ultimately shape the political and military future of Europe. The war saw both sides draw numerous allies into the conflict, with the English initially prevailing. However, the French emerged victorious under the House of Valois, retaining control over the Kingdom of France. The conflict had far-reaching effects, leading to changes in warfare and national identities in both France and England that permanently altered the course of European history. The conflict's legacy is still felt today, with the use of professional armies and artillery permanently changing the way that wars were fought in Europe. Despite the immense human cost and destructive nature of the conflict, it is a testament to the resilience of the European continent that it was able to recover and move forward from such a prolonged and destructive period of warfare. The war had its roots in the crisis of fourteenth-century Europe and the historic tensions between the French and English monarchies. While the war did not result in England gaining control of the French throne, it forever altered the course of history and left a lasting impact on both nations.

Bibliography

Davies, Norman. Europe: A History. New York: Harper, 1996.

Keen, Maurice. "The Hundred Years War." BBC. Last modified February 17, 2011. https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/middle_ages/hundred_years_war_01.shtml.

Ruddick, Dr Andrea. "Did the Hundred Years War Against France Strengthen a Sense of English National Identity?" University of Oxford: Faculty of History. Accessed November 13, 2023. https://www.history.ox.ac.uk/did-hundred-years-war-against-france-strengthen-sense-english-national-identity.

Wilson, Peter H. Heart of Europe: A History of the Holy Roman Empire. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2016.