OVERVIEW OF THE ITALIAN CAMPAIGN

The Italian Campaign of World War II holds a significant place in the annals of military history, despite its long-standing overshadowing by the more famous Normandy invasion. The campaign was fought across multiple fronts in Italy, beginning with the invasion of Sicily and culminating in the capture of Rome and the eventual defeat of Axis forces in Italy. The campaign was a protracted and grueling fight, characterized by difficult terrain, extreme weather, and a tenacious German defense. However, the lessons learned on the Italian front proved to be invaluable tactical and logistical experience that would pay dividends for the Allies in later battles.

The Italian Campaign began on 9 July 1943, with the Allied invasion of Sicily, codenamed "Operation Husky." The invasion was the second-largest amphibious assault in history, after the D-Day landing in Normandy, and marked the beginning of the Allied war against Germany in "Fortress Europe." The Sicily invasion was followed by the mainland Italian campaign, which lasted until the final German surrender in 1945.

The campaign's importance is often overlooked, but it played a pivotal role in the outcome of the war. The Italian campaign proved to be a testing ground for new tactics and techniques that would prove essential in later battles. Amphibious assault, multinational coalition warfare and logistical planning that were used in the campaign were instrumental in the subsequent D-Day landings and other Allied successes in the war. The Italian campaign was also notable for its use of multinational forces coming from different countries from across the world. In addition, the campaign saw the entry of the Indian and Polish armies, who played a significant role in the final push towards the toppling of the fascist stronghold.

The terrain of Italy itself proved to be one of the campaign's most formidable adversaries. Italy's mountainous, hilly, and riverine geography favored the defender, making it challenging to make significant progress in the battle. One of the most challenging battles was at the four battles of Monte Cassino, which epitomized the challenging terrain for the Allied soldiers. The undermanned and poorly equipped German army should have been an easy target for the superiorly equipped Allied forces, but the poor terrain and weather favored the defender. The Italian campaign cost the Allies significant losses, and the end-game is still cited as one of the least popular engagements of the Second World War.

However, historians note that the setbacks and losses of the Italian campaign were not in vain. Instead, those experiences were instrumental in preparing the Allies for the later battles in Europe. The lessons learned in Sicily and southern Italy, “notably the expertise gained in complex amphibious operations and in multi-national coalition warfare” played a significant role in subsequent Allied successes.

Furthermore, the Italian Campaign facilitated the task of Overlord by holding the flank of the Axis The decision to invade Italy was bound to favor the Allies in any case, because superior resources meant that they could threaten both the Channel and the Mediterranean, and ultimately committed over fifty divisions to defend the Eastern Mediterranean at the expense of other fronts.

Top right: Monte Cassino, Italy. May 1944. British soldier with a Bren gun in the ruins of Monte Cassino. Source: Public Domain. Click to enlarge.

Top right, second: Monte Cassino, Italy. April 1944. German soldier atop a lightly camouflaged Panther V tank. Photo collection - Bundesarchiv Bildarchiv. Source: Public Domain. Click to enlarge.

Bottom right, third: Polish soldiers carry ammunition to the front lines just before the capture of the abbey. Source: Public Domain. Click to enlarge.

Bottom right, fourth: The Abbey at Monte Cassino, modern day. Click to enlarge.

THE BATTLES OF MONTE CASSINO

The battles of Monte Cassino played a crucial role during the Italian Campaign of World War II. The victory by the Allied Forces in the four assaults was significant in opening up the road to Rome and marking the beginning of the end of the German stronghold in Italy. The objective was to break through the Winter Line and facilitate an advance towards Rome, which would be a significant strategic advantage for either side. Monte Cassino, a historic hilltop abbey founded in 529 by Benedict of Nursia, was the centerpiece of the German defensive position, forming a crucial part of the Gustav Line.

Monte Cassino, along with nearby towns and valleys, created a formidable natural defense line for the Germans. The hilltop abbey and its surroundings provided an ideal vantage point and strategic location that the German forces utilized to their advantage. The allied forces, including American, British, French, Indian, and Polish soldiers, confronted the well-entrenched and heavily-defended German forces. The task was further complicated by the rugged terrain, adverse weather conditions, and the Germans' familiarity with the area.

The Allies' success in breaking through the German defenses represented a turning point in the Italian Campaign. It allowed the Allies to move swiftly toward Rome and cut off the Germans in the south of Italy. The victory was one of the fundamental reasons for the Allies' eventual triumph in the war and signified a critical moment in the latter years of World War II.

The Italian campaign continued on from 1943 until the final German surrender in 1945 and critics argue that getting bogged down in Italy was frustrating at best and unnecessarily costly in lives at worst. The war in Italy was also referred to as a “cul de sac”. Author Andrew Roberts in Masters and Commanders offers: “The Americans – who were indeed probably wrong to consider invading France in 1942 or 1943 – were right to insist on doing so by the late spring of 1944.” There were strategic advantages and rewards for the Allies and the Italian campaign: “By holding the flank and attriting [sic] German forces with relatively few Allied divisions, the Italian campaign facilitated the task of Overlord. The decision to invade Italy was bound to favor the Allies in any case, because superior resources meant that they could threaten both the Channel and the Mediterranean. Hitler’s decision ultimately to commit fifty divisions to defend the Eastern Mediterranean at the expense of other fronts was a great boon to the alliance.” (Porch 2004, 460-461)

The extreme challenges faced throughout the Italian campaign at Anzio and Monte Cassino were not without reward for the Allies: “Three years after the Anzio landings Kesselring [German Generalfeldmarschall Albert Kesselring] was quoted as saying: “I can say this, if you had never pitted your divisions in the Mediterranean, as at Anzio-Nettuno, you would never have won the victory in the West.” Proponents of the 'Italy first' scenario argued that by entering Sicily and then mainland Italy Germany would have to reallocate resources from the east and west. This is precisely what occurred and is another significant data point in our 'Italy first' scenario. (D'Este 2008, 406)

The first battle of Monte Cassino began on 17 January 1944, when the US 36th Division attacked the town of Cassino, situated at the foot of the hill where the Benedictine monastery stood. The German defenders, equipped with mortars, machine guns, and snipers, held their ground and inflicted heavy losses on the Americans, who were not used to mountain warfare. The British 56th Division and the Algerian 3rd Division joined the attack but faced similar difficulties. The Germans, under the command of General Fridolin von Senger und Etterlin and Field Marshal Albert Kesselring, launched counterattacks with tanks and artillery and repelled the Allies from their positions. The battle lasted for four days and resulted in the withdrawal of five Allied divisions from the front line, due to exhaustion, casualties, and low morale. The Germans suffered fewer losses but were also depleted of resources and reinforcements.

The bitter fighting on Monte Castellone near the monastery, scene of the heaviest German artillery bombardment of the entire Battle for Monte Cassino, produced one of the rare moments of compassion rarely offered during the Italian campaign. On the 13th of February, a German-requested truce had taken place, enabling them to pick up their fallen comrades on the slopes. The Germans had learned the expensive lesson that artillery is as likely to hit your own troops as well as the enemy in mountain combat. As German stretcher bearers were carrying the dead back to their lines, an interesting exchange had taken place: “A group of Germans assembled, and one said he was from Koblenz and remembered American soldiers being stationed there at the end of the First World War. Reese [Lt. Col. Hal Reese, US Army] said he had been one of those Americans, and, faced with German skepticism, he pulled out an old ID card with a picture of himself taken in the town in January 1919. Soon they were all pulling out wallets and showing photographs of parents, wives and children. A camera came out and new photographs were taken.” (Swanston & Swanston 2005, 144)

The second battle of Monte Cassino, also known as the bombing of the monastery, took place on 15 February 1944, when the Allies decided to destroy the 6th-century abbey from the air, suspecting that it was used as a German observation post and stronghold. The decision was controversial and debated among the Allied leaders, who were aware of the historical and spiritual significance of the monastery for the Italian people. The destruction of the monastery, which had survived earthquakes, invasions, and revolutions, caused worldwide protests and criticism, even from some military officials. The bombing involved more than 200 bombers and 450 tons of explosives, creating a large cloud of dust and smoke that obscured the vision of the pilots and caused collateral damage to nearby villages. However, the bombing failed to dislodge the Germans from their positions or destroy all their defenses, as some parts of the monastery remained intact and usable.

The third battle of Monte Cassino began on 15 March 1944, when the Allies resumed their offensive by bombarding the town of Cassino with artillery and air support, in preparation for a ground assault. However, the initial bombardment caused a tragic mistake, as a group of American bombers dropped their bombs on the wrong town, Venafro, killing more than 300 civilians and friendly troops, and damaging the morale of the Allies. The German defenders, aware of the upcoming attack, had reinforced their positions and built new defenses, including minefields, obstacles, and trenches. The British, New Zealand, and Indian troops, commanded by General Bernard Freyberg, launched the assault but faced fierce resistance from the Germans, who used the terrain to their advantage and repulsed several waves of attacks. The battle lasted for a month and resulted in the capture of some strategic points but failed to break the Gustav Line. The casualties were high on both sides, with more than 50,000 Allied soldiers killed, wounded, or missing, and more than 20,000 German soldiers killed, wounded, or captured.

The fourth and final battle of Monte Cassino, also known as Operation Diadem, began on 11 May 1944, when the Allies launched a coordinated assault on the Gustav Line, with the participation of more than a dozen divisions, including Polish, French, Canadian, and Indian ones. The main attack was aimed at the town of Cassino and the hill of Monte Cassino, where the remaining German defenders were located. The Allies used a variety of tactics, including artillery, air support, tanks, flamethrowers, and infantry assaults, to overwhelm the Germans and close in on their positions. The Polish 2nd Corps, under the command of General Władysław Anders, played a crucial role in the battle, by capturing the western flank of the monastery hill and cutting off the German retreat. The Germans, running out of ammunition, food, and water, surrendered on 18 May 1944, marking the end of the Battle of Monte Cassino and the opening of the road to Rome. The victory was celebrated by the Allies and the Polish soldiers, who recognized the symbolic and emotional value of capturing the monastery that their compatriots had built and inhabited.

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