Focus on the Literature of War: Science of Politics (Arthashastra)
Classical and medieval India produced very few military treaties and tactics and strategy. Unlike in classical Greece and Rome and China, Indian writers were not interested in chronicling the origin, course, and outcome of major wars and campaigns, nor do we have memoirs detailing the strategic processes of major military figures. Instead, Indian political and military theory is shaped by long-held religious considerations informed by the Subcontinent’s major religions of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and later Islam. Some understanding of Indian political and military theory can be gleaned from the massive amounts of epic and romantic literature produced in Sanskrit in this region. Two core and opposing perspectives on the conduct of war evolved from the Vedic era (c.1500-c.500 BCE); the concept of “just war” (dharmayuddha) and “unjust war” (kutayuddha). Just war theory in India gave rise to laws governing the conduct of warfare, often emphasizing humanitarian considerations to limit the suffering caused by conflict. Here, the humanitarian aspects of both indigenous and imported religions can be seen. Unjust war theory emphasizes psychological warfare, espionage, and the use of specialized troops for covert operations. And while both of these approaches to political statecraft and warfare are evident in Indian history, the concept of just war or dharmayuddha dominated for most of India’s classical and early medieval ages until the invasion of Islamic armies from the northwest in the ninth century CE changed how Indian’s made war. However, the first unification of Indian kingdoms into an imperium in the late fourth and early third centuries BCE was greatly assisted by a strategic theory and treatise embodying the kutayuddha approach to statecraft, an approach shaped by Kautilya’s Arthashastra.1
RIGHT: A modern interpretation of the visage of Kautilya, taken from the cover of the early twentieth century translation of the Arthashastra by R. Shamasastry, Government Oriental Library, 1915.
Kautilya (also known as Chanakya and Vishnugupta, c.350-275 BCE) was an Indian statesman, political philosopher and master strategist who served the first Mauryan emperor as both prime minister and chief advisor. His famous strategy handbook, the Arthashastra, is best known today by its Sanskrit title and is essentially a political handbook written to assist an Indian king on how to seize, hold, and manipulate power and govern an empire. The title comes from a Sanskrit word which is normally translated as the “Science of Politics.” The Arthashastra is perhaps the oldest Indian political science text in existence, a practical and unsentimental approach to governance containing detailed information on diplomacy, economics, and warfare (including military tactics and the use of spies). In the Arthashastra, Kautilya describes the state as consisting of various components: The king, the ministers, the country (population, geography and natural resources), fortification, treasury, army, and allies. Kautilya goes on to explain each of these individual components and stresses the importance of strengthening these elements in your own kingdom through propaganda and weakening them in your enemy’s state through the use of espionage. The Arthashastra also provides direct guidance in foreign policy, specifically how to approach peace, war, neutrality, preparing for war, seeking protection and even duplicity (pursuing war and negotiations for peace at the same time with the same kingdom).2
Kautilya served the founding ruler of the Mauryan Empire (322-185 BCE), Chandragupta Maurya (r.322-298 BCE) and his son Bindusara (r.298-273 BCE) as prime minister. Kautilya’s early biography is somewhat obscured and is informed by various Hindu, Jain and Buddhist traditions of his life, but he is believed to have been born in Taxila into the highborn Brahmin caste and was well-educated.
LEFT: The Arthashastra is a Sanskrit treatise on statecraft, political science, economic policy and military strategy whose author is traditionally attributed to Kautilya, also identified as Vishnugupta and Chanakya. The original work dates back to between the 4th century BCE according to some scholars. This particular manuscript was written in the Grantha script and is held at the Oriental Research Institute (ORI), University of Mysore, Mysuru. The manuscript was rediscovered by Rudrapatna Shamasastry in 1905 amongst a heap of manuscripts. He subsequently published it in 1909, with an English translation following in 1915.
One tradition has Kautilya aiding the young Chandragupta in defeating the Nanda Empire, which included Northern India and Kalinga (modern Orissa), earning him the trust of the ambitious prince and launching both of their political careers. As a powerful regional warlord Chandragupta took advantage of the chaos created by the Macedonian king and conquer Alexander the Great’s invasion of Western India to unify the small states in Northern India for the first time around 322 BCE. Using the Achaemenid Persian model, Chandragupta divided his new empire into provinces ruled by a governor usually drawn from his own family. He established a complex bureaucratic taxation system to finance public services through taxes on agriculture. He also built a regular army, complete with specialized departments to facilitate his combined arms operations against his enemies on land and at sea. As Chandragupta’s prime minister Kautilya was instrumental in developing each of these areas of government, with his political and strategic handbook, the Arthashastra, serving as a “how to” manual for his and later Indian kings and emperors.3
RIGHT: Rediscovered circa 16th century Arthashastra manuscript. The Arthashastra is a Sanskrit treatise on statecraft, political science, economic policy and military strategy whose author is traditionally attributed to Kautilya, also identified as Vishnugupta and Chanakya. The original work dates back to between the 4th century BCE according to some scholars. This particular manuscript was written in the Grantha script and is held at the Oriental Research Institute (ORI), University of Mysore, Mysuru. The manuscript was rediscovered by Rudrapatna Shamasastry in 1905 amongst a heap of manuscripts. He subsequently published it in 1909.
Central to Kautilya’s strategic theory is the “Circle of States” theory, sometimes described as the Indian mandala theory of interstate relations. A mandala is a schematic visual representation of the universe commonly used in South and East Asian cultures. Kautilya places his Mauryan kingdom in the center of a circular mandala, then describes the area directly surrounding his kingdom as friendly or enemy territory. Moving outward, the circle surrounding this enemies’ territories belongs to his enemies’ enemies, who should be considered prospective allies since the Mauryan state and this state share many interests (most specifically, a similar antagonist in the state both parties border). This process of identifying potential enemies and allies using expanding concentric circles continues, with Kautilya analyzing a total of twelve levels, offering detailed advice on how to deal with each state according to the layer they belong to in the mandala construct.4 Kautilya’s concept of war and peace is described as a relationship to the Circle of States or mandala theory. He explains that the Circle of States is the source of the six-fold policy regarding war and peace.
“Peace (sandhi), war (vigraha), observance of neutrality (asana), marching (yana), alliance (samsraya), and making peace with one and waging war with another (dvaidhighava) are the six forms of state-policy.
Whoever is inferior to another shall make peace with him; whoever is superior in power shall wage war; whoever thinks, “no enemy can hurt me, nor am I strong enough to destroy my enemy,” shall observe neutrality; whoever is possessed by necessary means shall march against the enemy; whoever is devoid of necessary strength to defend himself shall seek the protection of another; whoever thinks that help is necessary to work out and in shall make peace with one and wage war with another. Such is the aspect of the six forms of policy.”5
He continues with a detailed description of the “Five Forms of Peace.” These include peace with no definite terms (aparipanita). This is an agreement of peace with no terms of time, space, or work with an enemy made merely for mutual peace. Peace with no specific end (akritachikirsha), an agreement of peace in which the rights of equal, inferior, and superior powers concerned in the agreement are defined according to their respective positions. Next is a peace with binding terms (kritasleshana) or an agreement of peace kept secure whose terms are invariably observed and strictly maintained so that no dissension may creep among the parties. Followed by a broken agreement of peace or kritavidushana. And finally, restoration of a broken peace (apasírnakriya) defined as a reconciliation made with a servant, or a friend, or any former dissenter.6 Moreover, Kautilya describes three types of war; open war (prakashayudda) conventional set-piece battle or campaign fought with mutual consent. Devious war (kutayuddha), a war where the enemy is attacked in a variety of ways, surprise attacks being the norm; and, secret war (tusniyudda), a war of espionage and assassination against an adversary when war is not declared.7 And although the Arthashastra emphasizes devious warfare, it prescribes that if a sovereign has a superior fighting force, he should engage in open war. The Arthashastra also advocates for a strong secret service (gudhapurusha) to perform three strategic objectives: inform the king about internal and external developments, conduct covert operations to undermine enemies, and ensuring discipline and loyalty within the royal bureaucracy and military. Intelligence reports from three sources were required before state action could be authorized, except in emergencies. Spies watched government officials, informed the king about public sentiment, detected sedition and crime, aided justice, gathered information on neighboring kingdoms, and discovered and then countered enemy plans.8
Kautilya continues with a discussion of Mauryan combined arms deployments, providing modern scholars with details on specifically how infantry (anvikshaki), cavalry (ashwasena), chariots (ratha), and elephants (sannahya), should be used in war, including remarks on unit size and their role on the march, on the battle line, and during sieges. The tasks of the cavalry include “destruction or protection of the commissariat and of troops arriving afresh; supervision of the discipline of the army; protecting the flanks of the army; first attack; dispersion of the enemy's army; carrying the treasury and the princes; falling against the rear of the enemy; chasing the timid; pursuit; and concentration.”9 The tasks of the elephants include “marching in the vanguard; preparing roads, camping grounds and paths; protecting flanks; forcing entrance into impregnable places; the subjugation of one of the four constituents of the army; breaking a compact army; protection against dangers; trampling down the enemy's army; destruction of walls, gates and towers; and carrying the treasury.”10 The tasks of chariots include “protection of the army; repelling attacks; seizing and holding positions during battle; gathering a dispersed army; breaking the compact array of the enemy's army; and frightening it by its magnificence and fearful noise.”11The tasks of infantry are “the carrying of weapons, and fighting.”12 Similar to Sunzi’s The Art of War, Kautilya’s Arthashastra also discusses in great detail the relationship between terrain and battlefield success, describing the types of terrain best suited for each type of troop “for both war and for camp.”13 He also offers pragmatic advice concerning how to approach a battlefield victory depending on the relative strength of the combatants:
“Having broken the whole army of the enemy, the invader should seek for peace; if the armies are of equal strength, he should make peace when requested for it; and if the enemy’s army is inferior, he should attempt to destroy it. But not that which has secured a favorable position and is reckless of life. When a broken army, reckless of life, resumes its attack, its fury becomes irresistible; hence he should not harass a broken army of the enemy.”14
LEFT: Map showing the Mauryan Empire, c.250 BCE. The Mauryan Empire (322–185 BCE) was the first pan-Indian empire, founded by Chandragupta Maurya (r.340-297 BCE) under the guidance of Kautilya, and expanded under Ashoka (r.268-232 BCE), who later in his reign embraced Buddhism and promoted nonviolence across the realm. Renowned for its centralized administration, vast territorial reach, and enduring cultural legacy, it marked a transformative era in ancient Indian history.
The Arthashastra contains advice concerning military preparedness, suggesting that the state must always be prepared for war, with secure defenses and a well-armed and well-trained army. Kautilya also emphasizes a king pursue diplomacy over warfare when possible yet be prepared for war if war is inevitable. While at war, it is appropriate to use all means to achieve victory, including assassination of enemy leaders, creating conflict in its leadership, engaging in covert operations in the pursuit of military objectives, the use of propaganda to bolster the morale of your own troops, or to demoralize enemy soldiers and citizens. And interestingly, the Arthashastra also advocates humane treatment for conquered soldiers and subjects. Kautilya believed in winning hearts and minds after conquest. Rather than ruling through fear, he advocates for good governance, moral example, and integration to secure lasting control. ““Having conquered the enemy’s territory, the conqueror shall substitute his virtues for the enemy’s vices, and thereby win over the people.”15
Kautilya is often seen by Indian and Western observers as a dedicated public servant who envisioned a united India ruled by a benevolent king willing to utilize all of the tools of statecraft to obtain, maintain, and expand his realm. His Arthashastra is a sophisticated political, economic and military treatise, one that emphasizes the interconnectedness of these three areas of statecraft, written by a powerful prime minister capable of putting these theories into action. These best practices continue to be employed by Chandragupta’s son, Bindusara (r.297-293 BCE), the second Mauryan king who Kautilya also served. Unfortunately, the Arthashastra was only influential in Indian culture until the Gupta Empire (240-550 CE), then becoming a lost text until its rediscovery in 1905 by Rudrapatna Shamasastry (1868-1944), a Sanskrit scholar and librarian at the Oriental Research Institute in Mysore, India, who completed the first English translation in 1915. Since then it has been translated into numerous Western languages and has become an important addition to our understanding of Mauryan culture as well as a handbook on political realism (one that invites comparisons to Machiavelli’s The Prince) with applications to the twenty-first century. Today, Kautilya’s Arthashastra shapes modern India’s foreign policy as a great power in a world of global alliances.16
Footnotes
1. Daniel Coetzee and Lee Eysturlid, Philosophers of War: The Evolution of History's Greatest Military Thinkers, Volume 1: The Ancient to Premodern World, 3000 BCE-1815 CE (Praeger, 2013), 355-356.
2. Coetzee and Eysturlid, Philosophers of War, 77-81.
3. Ibid, 75-76.
4. Ibid, 78.
5. Kautilya, Arthashastra, trans Rudrapatna Shamasastry (Fingerprint! Classics, 2023), 306-307.
6. Kautilya’s “Five Forms of Peace are described in great detail in Book Seven of his Arthashastra.
7. Rashed Uz Zaman, "Kautilya: The Indian Strategic Thinker and Indian Strategic Culture,” Comparative Strategy 25, no. 3 (2006), 237.
8. Harjeet Singh, The Military Strategy of the Arthashastra (Pentagon Press, 2012), 132-135.
9. Kautilya, Arthashastra, 422.
10. Ibid.
11. Ibid, 423.
12. Ibid.
13. Ibid, 421.
14. Ibid, 420-421.
15. Ibid, 467.
16. Zaman, "Kautilya: The Indian Strategic Thinker and Indian Strategic Culture,” 232.
Suggested Readings
Primary Source
Kautilya, Arthashastra. Translated by Rudrapatna Shamasastry. Government Oriental Library, 1915. Reprint, Fingerprint! Classics, 2023.
Secondary Sources
Coetzee, Daniel, and Lee Eysturlid. Philosophers of War: The Evolution of History's Greatest Military Thinkers, Volume 1: The Ancient to Premodern World, 3000 BCE-1815 CE. Praeger, 2013.
Singh, Harjeet. The Military Strategy of the Arthashastra. Pentagon Press, 2012.
Zaman, Rashed Uz. "Kautilya: The Indian Strategic Thinker and Indian Strategic Culture.” Comparative Strategy 25, no. 3 (2006): 231-247.
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