Background to the Second Battle of El-Alamein
The Axis forces had been continuously advancing since the start of the North African campaign in February 1941. The capture of Tobruk by the German-Italian forces in June 1942 resulted in the Axis armies being at the doorstep of the strategically important Suez Canal. However, this advancement stalled in July 1942 at the first Battle of El-Alamein where the British forces successfully blocked the Axis forces. This provided Britain with a much-needed breathing space to reinforce its North African front and prepare for an offensive. General Montgomery was put in charge of the British Eighth Army in August 1942 and was tasked with defeating the Axis forces.

The First Battle of El Alamein and the Battle of Alam el Halfa had previously prevented the Axis powers from advancing into Egypt and marked a stalemate in the North African campaign. However, the British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, became impatient with the lack of progress in the Western Desert campaign, leading to the arrival of General Bernard Montgomery in Cairo. General Claude Auchinleck was relieved of his command, and Montgomery was appointed as his replacement. Montgomery started preparations and initiated a fresh approach to the war effort, delineating his plan and placing his vision with impressive assertiveness. He restructured the 8th Army, uplifting the army's morale with his bold fighting talk and reorganizing with new divisions and generals.

The Second Battle of El Alamein took place near the Egyptian railway halt of El Alamein from 23 October to 11 November 1942. This battle saw the British and Commonwealth forces prevail over German and Italian forces, ending the Axis powers’ long-fought-for presence and ambitions in the Western Desert. This decisive victory was an essential factor in paving the way for the Allies' liberation of North Africa.

Montgomery revamped the army and air forces, ensuring a more comprehensive and unified attack plan. He knew that Rommel, who was widely known as the Desert Fox for his victories in North Africa, was a master of mobile warfare and anticipated a major attack. Rommel was aware that he could not advance any further due to a lack of fuel and transport and chose to hide his forces behind a deep and complex minefield, known as the “Devil's Gardens.” However, Montgomery knew that reinforcements were on their way and waited for the right opportunity to launch his attack.

The Plan of Attack and Offensive
The plan of attack drawn up by General Montgomery was to create a diversionary attack in the southern sector, using the Free French forces led by General Leclerc, whilst the main attack would take place in the north, close to the coast, with the aim of breaking through the Axis line. Unlocking this front would expose the German-Italian army to counterattacks while wearing down their offensive capability. The offensive began on 23 October 1942, with a massive artillery barrage from more than 800 guns, heralding the first wave of attack. British sappers, followed by infantry and tanks, advanced to clear paths through the minefields. However, the British armor was unable to get a grip on the enemy, and the Axis commanders were taken aback by the ferocity of the assault. A spirited counterattack from Rommel temporarily halted the British advance.

The battle numbered two phases. The first, known as Operation Lightfoot, initiated with a powerful artillery bombardment followed by infantry divisions of 30th Corps in the north and 13th Corps in the south. They opened paths through the minefields for the armoured divisions of the 10th Corps to pass. The German defences resistantly held up against the attack, making demolishing them more challenging than anticipated. Nonetheless, the 8th Army consistently pushed forward, inch by inch. On 25 October, General Montgomery received the news of Rommel’s departure for Germany, leaving General Georg von Stumme as his replacement. Unfortunately, during the battle of Alam Halfa, Georg von Stumme died of a heart attack, and Rommel had to return to take command on 25 October.

The Breakthrough
Despite these setbacks, the infantry, especially the Australian and New Zealand Divisions, were able to make progress, opening up corridors through the Axis defenses, which the British exploited. The Axis forces were now being worn down, and their strength was being depleted. On 2 November, Rommel signaled to Hitler that the battle was lost. Although initially refused permission to retreat, Rommel began the withdrawal of his German units, leaving his Italian allies, who lacked advanced motor transport, to be captured by the British. By 4 November, the motorized elements of the Axis were in full retreat, and because of the sluggish British follow-up, they were allowed to escape virtually unscathed.

On the night of 1 November, Montgomery launched the second phase called Operation Supercharge that aimed to break through the last part of the German defences. The infantry units cleared the way for the armoured divisions, and finally, after the countless resistances offered by the enemy forces the Germans realized that the battle was lost.

On 2 November, Rommel sent a message to Hitler, warning him that his army faces annihilation. The Allies intercepted the message, and Montgomery had the deciphered note in his hands the following morning. Hitler ordered Rommel to 'stand and die', but the Panzer Army had already started retreating when the order was received. On 4 November, Rommel's last defences caved in, and he received orders from Hitler to withdraw.

The Aftermath
The victory at the Second Battle of El-Alamein provided a major boost to British morale and marked a significant turning point in World War II. Churchill later said that the battle marked "the end of the beginning" of the war. The North African campaign had been a long, hard-fought battle, but this victory finally won the Allies a clear strategic advantage. It also led to the successful Anglo-American landings in North Africa on 8 November. The result of the Second Battle of El Alamein was a decisive victory for the British and Commonwealth armies without direct American participation. The triumph marked the end of the Axis powers' drive in North Africa, emphasized the Allies' domination of the Mediterranean, secured the Suez Canal, bolstered the Allies' confidence, and persuaded the French to support the North African campaign. The Battle also had a significant impact on the course of the world history-led to the increase of general morale in the British Home Front, promoting Churchill's popularity, leading to the replacement of significant military personnel, and kick-starting the Allies' rising.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Atkinson, Rick. An Army at Dawn: The War in North Africa, 1942-1943, Volume One of the Liberation Trilogy. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 2007.

Bierman, John, and Colin W. Smith. The Battle of Alamein: Turning Point, World War II. New York: Viking, 2002.

Boog, Horst, Werner Rahn, Reinhard Stumpf, and Bernd Wegner. Germany and the Second World War: Volume 6: The Global War. Oxford: OUP Oxford, 2001.

Holland, James. Together We Stand: North Africa 1942–1943: Turning the Tide in the West. London: HarperCollinsPubishers, 2006.

Moorehead, Alan. Desert War: The Classic Trilogy on the North Africa Campaign 1940-1943. London: Aurum Press, 2001.