The Russian Civil War of 1917 marked the beginning of a new era in Russian history. The overthrow of the social-democratic Provisional Government in the October Revolution led to a multi-party conflict, with different factions fighting for control over Russia's political future. The conflict gave rise to the formation of the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, which later transformed into the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, spanning most of its territory.

This was a tumultuous three-year period, spanning from 1918 to 1921, marked by the emergence of opposition against the Bolsheviks after November 1917. This opposition took the form of a myriad of groups, including monarchists, militarists, and foreign nations, collectively known as the Whites, opposing the Bolsheviks, known as the Reds. The outbreak of the war was fomented by the Bolshevik's call for peace at any cost, which was illustrated by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk when the Germans imposed severe terms. By the end of 1917, the Bolsheviks only controlled Petrograd, Moscow, and the territory in between, leaving most of the Russian empire vulnerable, laid bare for an uprising and independence declarations. Finland was one of the first to take this opportunity and declared independence in March 1918, experiencing its civil war shortly afterward.

The White opposition sought help from the West, looking for support in their struggle against the Bolsheviks. Scholars postulate that this outside influence was a significant factor in the Russian Civil War. The western powers, seeking to re-open an Eastern Front to divide the German Army, who was wreaking havoc on the Western Front, saw aiding the White opposition as an opportunity to achieve their aims. The resistance to the Bolsheviks was primarily located in the south of Russia, led by Kornilov and survivors of World War I. The Socialist Revolutionaries, constituent assembly members, were mainly concentrated in Lower Volga under the leadership of Viktor Chernov. An autonomous government was established by a Socialist Revolutionary group just east of Omsk, who claimed to rule Siberia and seized Vladivostok to the east. In Trans-Baikalia, Colonel Semenov, a monarchist, created his own government. General Horvat, who was tsar's military-governor in Manchuria, established a conservative government there. While alive, the royal family was a source of inspiration to the Whites, but after their execution in July 1918, the Bolsheviks further consolidated their power, winning definitive victories after World War I. They gained the upper hand as the Whites lost their momentum due to their strategic choices and military positioning.

The civil war was a result of the complex political situation in Russia after the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II during the February Revolution. Russia was in a state of political flux, and the Bolshevik-led October Revolution only added to the confusion. The establishment of a Bolshevik-led socialist state headed by Vladimir Lenin was not universally accepted, and the country quickly descended into a civil war. The two largest combatants in the conflict were the Red Army and the White Army, which functioned as a political big tent for right- and left-wing opposition to Bolshevik rule. In addition, rival militant socialists, notably the Ukrainian anarchists of the Makhnovshchina and Left Socialist-Revolutionaries, were involved in conflict against the Bolsheviks. They, as well as non-ideological green armies, opposed the Bolsheviks, the Whites and the foreign interventionists.

Top right: Lenin’s Bolsheviks Overthrow Kerensky’s Provisional Gov’t, Start Russian Civil War. Source: Defense and Aerospace Report. Public Domain.

Middle right: Red Army commander Leon Trotsky salutes soldiers near today’s St. Petersburg in 1919. Source: Radio Free Europe and Public Domain. Click to enlarge.

Bottom right: Red Army fighters gather for lunch around a fire in 1919. Source: Radio Free Europe and Public Domain. Click to enlarge.

The Russian Civil War quickly became an international conflict. Thirteen foreign nations intervened against the Red Army, notably the Allied intervention, whose primary goal was re-establishing the Eastern Front of World War I. Three foreign nations of the Central Powers also intervened, rivaling the Allied intervention with the main goal of retaining the territory they had received in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Soviet Russia. The Bolsheviks initially consolidated control over most of the former empire, but the Czechoslovak Legion in Russia revolted in Siberia in May 1918. In reaction, the Allies began their North Russian and Siberian interventions. That, combined with the creation of the Provisional All-Russian Government, saw the reduction of Bolshevik-controlled territory to most of European Russia and parts of Central Asia.

The White Army launched several offensives in 1919, from the east in March, the south in July, and west in October. However, their advances were later checked by the Eastern Front counteroffensive, the Southern Front counteroffensive, and the defeat of the Northwestern Army. By 1919, the White armies were in retreat and by the start of 1920 were defeated on all three fronts. Although the Bolsheviks were victorious, the territorial extent of the Russian state had been reduced since many non-Russian ethnic groups had used the disarray to push for national independence.

In March 1921, during a related war against Poland, the Peace of Riga was signed, splitting disputed territories in Belarus and Ukraine between the Republic of Poland and Soviet Russia. Soviet Russia sought to re-conquer all newly independent nations of the former Empire, although their success was limited. Estonia, Finland, Latvia, and Lithuania all repelled Soviet invasions, while Ukraine, Belarus (as a result of the Polish–Soviet War), Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia were occupied by the Red Army. By 1921, Soviet Russia had defeated the Ukrainian national movements and occupied the Caucasus, although anti-Bolshevik uprisings in Central Asia lasted until the late 1920s.

The war had significant implications for the Soviet Union's future. The Bolsheviks maintained control over the country, but at a high cost. There were approximately 7 to 12 million casualties during the war, mostly civilians. The conflict left the country's infrastructure in ruins and put a significant strain on the Soviet economy. The Red Army emerged as the primary military force, while the White Army's defeat led to the exile of many anti-Bolsheviks from Russia. Additionally, the conflict allowed the Bolsheviks to assert their dominance over the communist movement worldwide, leading to the formation of the Communist International.

The war also had significant economic implications for the Soviet Union. During the war, most of the country's industries were destroyed, and agriculture was disrupted. The Bolshevik government had to resort to war communism, which involved the nationalization of the economy, rationing, and the conscription of labor. This resulted in widespread famine and a significant decline in the standard of living. The economic crisis caused by the war led Lenin to launch the New Economic Policy (NEP) in 1921, which allowed limited private enterprise and sought to revive agriculture and industry. It was successful in ending the famine and stabilizing the economy. However, the NEP also created a new class of wealthy peasants (kulaks) who became a target of Soviet repression in the late 1920s.

The civil war also gave rise to many of the Soviet Union's future policies, such as the use of propaganda and repression to maintain control over the population. The Soviet Union's centralized government, collectivization of agriculture, and nationalization of industries were direct results of the post-revolutionary period. The conflict also led to the creation of a strong state apparatus, with the security forces playing an essential role in Soviet society.

Historians estimate that as many as 10 million lives were lost as a result of the Russian Civil War, the overwhelming majority of them being civilian casualties. The war resulted in the deaths of 300,000 men who were killed in action during the Civil War and Polish-Soviet War. It is also estimated that 450,000 military personnel died from diseases. Additionally, it is believed that the total losses among the population of Tambov region in 1920 to 1922 resulting from the war, executions, and imprisonment in concentration camps were approximately 240,000. Much of the Russian economy had ground to a standstill, and the social structure of Russia had been decimated.

The Red Terror was an important factor in the aftermath of the war. Estimates for the number of people shot during the initial period of the Red Terror are at least 10,000. Estimates for the whole period go for a low of 50,000 to highs of 140,000 and 200,000 executed. Most estimates for the number of executions in total put the number at about 100,000. According to Vadim Erlikhman's investigation, the number of the Red Terror's victims is at least 1,200,000 people. This was a policy of repression that was implemented by the Bolshevik government in the early years of Soviet Russia, and was marked by widespread executions, torture, and imprisonments of political opponents.

De-Cossackization was another significant event that followed the end of the Russian Civil War. This was a policy of repression implemented by the Bolshevik government against the Cossacks, who were seen as counter-revolutionaries. The policy resulted in the killing or deportation of as many as 500,000 Cossacks out of a population of around three million.

The aftermath of the Russian Civil War was also marked by a severe famine that killed roughly 5 million people. Disease had reached pandemic proportions, with 3,000,000 dying of typhus throughout the war. Millions more also died of widespread starvation, wholesale massacres by both sides and pogroms against Jews in Ukraine and southern Russia. By 1922, there were at least 7,000,000 street children in Russia as a result of nearly ten years of devastation from World War I and the civil war.

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"Exhibitions & Learning Online." The National Archives. Accessed September 23, 2023. https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/firstworldwar/spotlights/allies.htm.

"The Horror Of Russia’s Civil War." RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty. Last modified January 9, 2019. https://www.rferl.org/a/the-horror-of-russias-civil-war-in-photos-from-red-cross-mission/29699442.html.

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