On the precipice of World War I in 1917, Russia found herself at the heart of an immense historical upheaval that would alter not only her course but the world's as well. Two revolutions unfolded, each rippling across the globe, signaling irreversible change.

When Nicholas II ascended the throne in 1894, it was with the expectation of lifelong rule, continuing the lineage of absolute power bequeathed by his father, Alexander III. Yet, barely two decades into his reign, Nicholas would witness the disintegration of both his authority and the tsarist regime itself—a monumental descent catalyzed by socioeconomic tribulations.

The societal fabric of Russia bore scars from economic stagnation intertwined with burgeoning industrialization, leading to widespread urban food shortages and rural discontent over sluggish land reform. Political unrest fomented among moderates, who pressed for Western-inspired liberalism, and socialist factions championed more drastic solutions. However, it was the catalyst of war that ignited change, cumulating in the February revolution.

The ignominious defeat to Japan in the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905) early in Nicholas' reign shattered the illusion of Russian military invincibility and precipitated a domestic crisis, particularly following the events of 'Bloody Sunday' in January 1905. The ensuing public outrage compelled Nicholas to enact unprecedented political reforms, including the establishment of a Duma, though he would soon curtail its powers, reaffirming his autocratic stance.

With the advent of World War One, patriotic fervor initially swept through Russia, masking underlying national malaise. However, as the war endured with a mounting death toll and resources dwindled, the public's discontent refocused squarely on the tsar. Nicholas' ill-fated decision to command the Russian front, leaving his unpopular German-born wife, Alexandra, in charge of government affairs, accelerated the decline. Military defeats and the threat of famine spurred mass protests, culminating in the Duma's decisive action. In February 1917, they seized control and established a Provisional Government, marking the cessation of centuries of tsarist rule with Nicholas II's abdication.

The Rise of the Bolsheviks and the October Revolution

In the wake of the initial revolution, the prospect of the Bolsheviks, once peripheral entities in Russian politics, ascending to the pinnacle of power was inconceivable. Emerging as a hardline faction from the Marxist Social Democrat Party in 1902, the Bolsheviks gradually formed a distinct political identity following a protracted rift with the moderate Mensheviks. By the early 1910s, the Mensheviks, instrumental in establishing the Petrograd Soviet—an influential council in St. Petersburg—and contributing members to the Provisional Government, overshadowed the Bolsheviks. Meanwhile, Lenin and other Bolshevik leaders were relegated to the political wilderness, with Lenin spending an extended period in exile.

A dramatic shift occurred in the spring of 1917, with Lenin's return to Russia via a German-provided sealed train. He immediately set in motion a ferocious campaign against the Provisional Government, articulated in his 'April Theses.' Lenin decried any collaboration with the remnants of the tsarist system and categorized socialists cooperating with the Provisional Government as adversaries. Facing accusations from Kerensky of being a German stooge, unwittingly expedited by the German arrangements for his transit, Lenin became a polarizing figure.

Top photo: Winter Palace, Petrograd (Later Leningrad and now Saint Petersburg) 1917. Russian army officers take the oath of allegiance to the October Revolution. Soldiers gathered in the square of the Winter Palace, many of whom previously supported the Provisional Government. Source: License assigned to War History Network. Click to enlarge.

Middle photo: Petrograd (Later Leningrad and now Saint Petersburg) Spring, 1917. Bolshevik parade during the Russian Revolution. Aligned against the Provisional Government headed by Prime Minister Alexander Kerensky. Source: License assigned to War History Network. Click to enlarge.

Bottom photo: Petrograd (Later Leningrad and now Saint Petersburg) Spring, 1917. Truckload of soldiers during Russian Revolution.  Source: License assigned to War History Network. Click to enlarge.

Despite these challenges, the Bolsheviks garnered grassroots support, propelled by Lenin's clarion call for "Peace, Bread, and Land." The July Days uprising further implicated the Bolsheviks in the growing revolutionary fervor. The watershed moment for the Bolshevik ascendancy arrived in late August 1917, when General Lavr Kornilov attempted a coup against the Provisional Government, an act that left it profoundly weakened post-Kornilov's defeat. Capitalizing on the disarray, Lenin convinced the Central Committee that an insurrection was imperative. The meticulous planning led to the October Revolution, during which Bolshevik forces, spearheaded by Trotsky, systematically secured the capital and ultimately overran the Winter Palace, symbolically clinching power.

On October 24, 1917, Lenin, acutely aware of the critical juncture at which the revolution stood, issued a powerful and unambiguous call to action. His message, charged with urgency, aimed to galvanize the Bolshevik faction and its supporters into immediate action. Lenin articulated that the moment for a decisive uprising had arrived — emphasizing that any delay could spell disaster for the revolutionary cause. He underscored the failure of negotiations and pointed out that the tumultuous events, such as the Kornilov affair, unequivocally demonstrated that the Provisional Government was incapable of addressing the people's demands for peace, bread, and land. Lenin stressed that the Bolsheviks must not only act but seize control swiftly and decisively, without heed to who initially takes power, provided it serves the populace's interests. This call to action sought to unify the revolutionaries under a common goal: to dismantle the existing government structure, thereby eliminating the threats of external aggression, internal collapse, and the continuation of the old regime's policies. Lenin's declaration was not merely a tactical maneuver but a visionary attempt to steer the course of the revolution towards a socialist future, advocating for immediate, radical change to fulfill the dire needs and aspirations of the masses.

The Constituent Assembly and Transition to Bolshevik Power

The Bolsheviks did not establish outright dictatorship following the October Revolution. They honored the Provisional Government's commitment to democratic elections in the winter of 1917, which were essential to validate the Bolshevik regime. However, the resulting victory of the Socialist Revolutionaries in the Constituent Assembly was short-lived, as the body was swiftly disbanded by the Red Guards, who declared that true power should rest with the Soviets—a system that was coming under increasing Bolshevik influence.

This abrupt seizure of power instigated resistance from a broad spectrum of opposition—including SRs, Mensheviks, liberals, and monarchists—ultimately propelling the nation into a devastating civil war throughout 1918. Martin Kitchen writes that,

The economy had completely broken down. There was a chronic shortage of manufactured goods, over 7 million people died of starvation with the remainder hardly having enough to keep body and soul together, and inflation was so rampant that money was valueless as a means of exchange. Some Bolsheviks looked at this chaos and called it socialism. Money, they claimed, had ‘withered away’ and the economy was passing through a phase of the ‘revolutionary disintegration of industry. The capitalist market economy had been destroyed and had been replaced by socialist planning and rationing. Any teething problems were regrettable, but inevitabe. Others took a less sanguine view of the situation, insisting that War Communism was a series of stopgap measures designed to overcome immediate problems caused by the revolution and civil war. (Kitchen 2013, 148)

The White Army, a varied coalition of anti-Bolshevik forces, struggled against internal divisions and lack of cohesive leadership, despite foreign support. Conversely, Trotsky's dynamic leadership, the strategic propagation of Bolshevik propaganda, and the extreme measures of 'War Communism' to seize resources ensured Red victory by 1920, albeit at a grievous cost.

Lenin's NEP and the Emergence of 'Nepmen'

The internal strife within Russia manifested once more in 1921 with the Kronstadt rebellion, critically challenging the Bolsheviks' premise of representing proletarian interests. In response to growing discontent, particularly amongst peasants and the urban middle class, Lenin introduced the New Economic Policy (NEP), temporarily liberalizing the economy, and encouraging private entrepreneurship. This move, though successful in recovering the alienated classes, sparked ideological controversy within the Communist Party, with some members perceiving it as capitulation to capitalist norms.

Lenin's defense of NEP as a 'transitional state' to communism did little to quell intra-party dissent. Nevertheless, his policy initiated the rise of the 'Nepmen,' a burgeoning class of entrepreneurs, and temporarily stabilized the Soviet economy—a testament to Lenin's pragmatism amidst ideologically fraught times.

Although Lenin was indeed a figure characterized by his ruthlessness, his pragmatism played an equally significant role in shaping the trajectory of the Soviet Union. Faced with the apparent stagnation of the Russian economy under immediate post-revolutionary socialist reforms, Lenin demonstrated flexibility in his ideology by introducing the New Economic Policy (NEP). This initiative, a deviation towards mixed economics, allowed for a measure of private enterprise and market dynamics, laying the groundwork for economic recovery in the years following his death.

In 1918, Lenin's resilience was further tested when he narrowly survived an assassination attempt, leaving him severely wounded. This incident had a lasting impact on his health, leading to a stroke in 1922 from which he never fully recovered. During the waning years of his life, Lenin was deeply troubled by the burgeoning bureaucracy within the regime and became increasingly concerned about the rising influence of Joseph Stalin, whom he viewed with skepticism. His health steadily declined until his death on 24 January 1924. Lenin's legacy was immediately immortalized by the Soviet state; his body was embalmed and placed within a mausoleum on Moscow’s Red Square, making him both a symbol of the revolution and a subject of enduring veneration.

The Russian revolutions of 1917 represent a watershed moment in modern history, not only reshaping Russia but also casting long shadows across global politics, which contributed to shaping the socio-political dynamics of the 20th century. From the ashes of the Russian Empire, the fervor of revolutionary spirit ignited movements worldwide, with echoes of its impact reverberating long after the smoke had cleared.

Bibliography

Beevor, Antony. Russia: Revolution and Civil War, 1917-1921. London: Viking, 2022.

Kitchen, Martin. Europe Between the Wars. New York: Routledge, 2013.

"Lenin in Power." History Today | The World’s Leading Serious History Magazine.  https://www.historytoday.com/archive/lenin-power#sthash.a46wBaYW.dpuf.

"New Economic Policy (NEP) – Russiapedia Of Russian Origin." Get Russianalized – Russiapedia. https://russiapedia.rt.com/of-russian-origin/new-economic-policy-nep/.

Slezkine, Yuri. The House of Government: A Saga of the Russian Revolution. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2017.

"Vladimir Lenin – Russiapedia Leaders Prominent Russians." Get Russianalized – Russiapedia. https://russiapedia.rt.com/prominent-russians/leaders/vladimir-lenin/.