The Battle of Iwo Jima was a pivotal moment in the Pacific War during World War II. The United States military launched Operation Detachment on 19 February 1945, with the objective of capturing the island of Iwo Jima from the Imperial Japanese Army. The island had two airfields, South Field and Central Field, that the Americans needed to capture as they would provide important airstrips for their planes. In the following weeks, the battle saw some of the most vicious fighting of the Pacific War, leading to the deaths of thousands on both sides.

The Japanese Army positions on the island were heavily fortified, with an extensive network of bunkers, hidden artillery positions, and 18 kilometers of tunnels. The Japanese garrison of about 21,000 combined army and navy troops were under command to wait until the Marines advanced inland before launching their attack. This strategy took a heavy toll on the Americans' progress as they faced relentless enemy fire from Japanese positions along the way. Lessons learned earlier in the war for the Japanese allowed them to effectively implement enfilade fire and defense-in-depth tactics which proved to be beneficial.

The fight for Iwo Jima cost the Marine Corps more lives than Japanese combatants, marking the first in the War in the Pacific. According to John Toland, a historian, the numbers of Marines killed on the island were approximately 4,554. However, in Ian W. Toll's book Twilight of the Gods: War in the Western Pacific, 1944-1945, it was reported that 24,053 marines and naval personnel were wounded or killed, with 6,140 losing their lives. This high mortality rate was due to the severe fighting conditions, including hidden Japanese positions and the challenging terrain.

The Japanese soldiers were heavily outnumbered, and their tactical and logistical disadvantages made it difficult for them to gain the upper hand. The intense fighting lasted for five weeks and saw the loss of some of the fiercest and bloodiest battles of the Pacific War. Although the Americans suffered significant losses, their victory was assured, primarily because of their air superiority, overwhelming firepower, and numerical advantage over the Japanese.

Of the 21,000 Japanese soldiers on Iwo Jima at the beginning of the battle, only 216 were taken prisoner, as most of them were killed. As many as 3,000 others continued to resist within the various cave systems even after the American victory and eventually succumbed to their injuries or surrendered weeks later. The battle was controversial, with some soldiers and officers questioning the usefulness of Iwo Jima as a base of operation for the American military.

Among the commanders and leaders of the United States Navy, Chester W. Nimitz, the Commander-in-Chief of the Pacific Fleet, and Raymond A. Spruance, the Commander of the 5th Fleet, were pivotal figures in the Battle of Iwo Jima. Admiral Nimitz was responsible for planning and executing the overall strategy for the Pacific Theater, which included the conquest of Iwo Jima. Under his command, the U.S. Navy provided the crucial naval and air support for the operation. Admiral Spruance, on the other hand, was responsible for the naval operations during the campaign, which involved the deployment of the fleet at strategic locations to provide support for the ground troops.

Top photo: Marines landing on the beaches of Iwo Jima. Source: Archives Branch, USMC History Division. Click to enlarge.

Middle photo: Machine-gun fire inland from the beach on Iwo Jima. Source: Archives Branch, USMC History Division. Click to enlarge.

Bottom photo: Moments after the second flag raising, February 1945. From the Louis R. Lowery Collection (COLL/2575) at the Archives Branch, Marine Corps History Division. On 23 February 1945, Staff Sergeant Louis R. "Lou" Lowery accompanied a 40-man combat patrol from 2d Battalion, 28th Marines to the top of Mount Suribachi on Iwo Jima. Lowery, a combat photographer, was sent along to capture an image of the raising of the American flag over the hotly-contested island of Iwo Jima. Though Lowery's photograph would be largely eclipsed by Joe Rosenthal's Pulitzer Prize-winning photograph of the second flag raising, Lowery used his camera to great effect in documenting the Marines on Iwo Jima." Source: Archives Branch, USMC History Division. (Note: This is an incredible photograph in that it shows both U.S. flags involved simultaneously in the Flag Raisings atop Mount Suribachi, Iwo Jima. Click to enlarge.

The role played by the United States Marine Corps was even more significant, with Holland M. Smith, the Commanding General of the V Amphibious Corps, acting as the key commander. Smith devised an innovative plan for the attack, which was divided into three phases, including the first phase of landing on the beach and capturing the airfield, the second phase of capturing Mount Suribachi, and the third phase of securing the northern part of the island. Harry Schmidt, Graves B. Erskine, Clifton B. Cates, and Keller E. Rockey were other commanders who played important roles in the successful execution of the plan.

The Imperial Japanese Army and Navy leaders who fought in the Battle of Iwo Jima also deserve recognition. Tadamichi Kuribayashi, a veteran of the Japanese military, was the Commander of the 109th Division and responsible for the defense of Iwo Jima. Kuribayashi was a tactical genius and had created a complex network of tunnels and bunkers, which made it difficult for the American forces to advance. Takeichi Nishi was another prominent figure who had won a gold medal in the equestrian event for Japan in the 1932 Summer Olympics. Nishi served as the Chief of Staff for the 33rd Division and died heroically in battle, leading a counterattack against the American forces. Sadasue Senda was the Commander of the 2nd Mixed Brigade and also played a significant role in the defense of Iwo Jima.

Rinosuke Ichimaru, a Vice Admiral in the Imperial Japanese Navy, was the commander of the naval garrison on Iwo Jima. The naval garrison was responsible for the defense of the island's major facilities, including the airfield and the harbor. Admiral Ichimaru coordinated with the army and air forces to put up a fierce resistance against the American forces.

The iconic photograph of the raising of the U.S. flag at the top of Mount Suribachi by six U.S. Marines became a symbol of American perseverance and their fighting spirit. However, it is important to note that there were actually two flag-raising incidents on the island, with the second one being the one that was captured in the photograph. Little did they know that this small act would become one of the most iconic photographs of the war, stirring the hearts and minds of millions around the world.

The man behind the camera that day was AP photographer Joe Rosenthal, who had accompanied the Marines on their mission to capture the flag-raising ceremony. Armed with his bulky Speed Graphic camera, Rosenthal climbed up the steep slopes of Mount Suribachi, determined to get the perfect shot of Marines hoisting the American flag atop the mountain.

As he made his way up the mountain, Rosenthal met several of his fellow photographers - Pvt. Bob Campbell, and Sgt. Bill Genaust - who were also documenting the event. They encountered Staff Sgt. Louis Lowery, a photographer with the Marine publication Leatherneck, who had already taken photos of the flag on the summit. Rosenthal was eager to reach the top, and with Lowery's advice, he convinced Genaust and Campbell to take him to the summit with them. On the summit of Mount Suribachi, Rosenthal was met with a group of Marines who were in the process of attaching a large American flag to a steel pipe. Nearby, another Marine had raised a smaller flag just a few minutes before. Rosenthal quickly snapped a few pictures of the smaller flag and then focused his attention on the group of Marines preparing to raise the larger flag.

To get the perfect shot, Rosenthal piled stones and a sandbag so that he could stand higher and see more clearly. Then, out of the corner of his eye, he saw six Marines start to raise the second flag. He swung his camera around toward the action and pushed the shutter, capturing the iconic image of the six Marines raising the flag Little did Rosenthal know that this photograph would become the defining image of the war, capturing the bravery, sacrifice, and determination of the American forces fighting in the Pacific. As the photograph was released by the AP and other news outlets, it quickly spread across the nation, sparking a wave of patriotism and renewed resolve to win the war.

Bibliography

Spector, Ronald H. Eagle Against the Sun: The American War with Japan. New York: Vintage Books, 1985.

Tatum, Chuck. Red Blood, Black Sand: Fighting Alongside John Basilone from Boot Camp to Iwo Jima. New York: Penguin, 2012.

Toll, Ian W. Twilight of the Gods: War in the Western Pacific, 1944-1945 (Vol. 3) (The Pacific War Trilogy). New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2020.

Wheeler, Richard. A Special Valor: The U.S. Marines and the Pacific War. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2006.

Wheeler, Richard. Iwo. Edison: Castle Books, 2007.

Photographs from the Archives Branch, Marine Corps History Division 

Iwo Jima - General Graves B. Erskine Collection
Iwo Jima - Lou Lowery Collection
Iwo Jima Operations
Iwo Jima - Soule Collection