Right: Muenster, Germany: 30 April 2022. View to the room called Friedenssaal ("Peace Room"), where the Peace of Westphalia was signed. Source: War History Network license. Click to enlarge.

The Peace of Westphalia is one of the most significant events in European history, marking the end of the Thirty Years' War. The two peace treaties were signed in October 1648, in the Westphalian cities of Osnabruck and Munster. These treaties ended a catastrophic period of European history that killed around eight million people, bringing peace to the Holy Roman Empire. The negotiation process was lengthy and complex, taking place in two cities because each side wanted to meet on territory under its own control. In this article, we will delve into the history of the Thirty Years' War, the circumstances surrounding the Peace of Westphalia, and its impact on modern international relations.

The Thirty Years' War was a devastating conflict that lasted from 1618-1648. It was primarily fought between the Catholic forces of the Holy Roman Empire and the Protestant states, led by Sweden and France, who supported the Protestant cause. The war began as a conflict between Protestant and Catholic forces in Bohemia, but it quickly spread throughout the continent, becoming one of the deadliest conflicts in European history.

The war is often divided into four phases, each marked by a distinct set of military campaigns. The first phase saw the Bohemian Revolt of 1618-1625, where the Protestant states of Bohemia rebelled against Emperor Ferdinand II's rule. The second phase, the Danish Intervention, involved the intervention of Protestant Denmark and the capture of numerous territories by Count Mansfeld and Duke Christian of Brunswick. The third phase, known as the Swedish Intervention, was marked by Sweden's entry into the war and its successful military campaigns in Germany. The final phase was the French Intervention, in which France entered the war on the Protestant side, hoping to limit the power of the Holy Roman Empire and the Habsburgs.

The war lasted for 30 bloody years, resulting in the utter destruction of much of the German countryside, with millions dying from famines, plagues, and massacres. The war ended with the signing of the Peace of Westphalia, which was an agreement between the warring parties, to restore peace to the Holy Roman Empire.

The Peace of Westphalia was signed on 24 October 1648. It consisted of two peace treaties, the Treaty of Münster and the Treaty of Osnabrück, collectively known as the Peace of Westphalia. The treaties ended the Thirty Years' War in the Holy Roman Empire, with the Habsburgs (rulers of Austria and Spain) and their Catholic allies on one side, battling the Protestant powers (Sweden and certain Holy Roman principalities) allied with France (though Catholic, strongly anti-Habsburg under King Louis XIV).

The treaty of Munster ended the hostilities between the Dutch Republic and Spain, recognizing the former as a sovereign state. Meanwhile, the Treaty of Osnabruck ended the conflict between the Holy Roman Empire and the Protestant states. The treaties granted significant concessions to the Protestant states, recognizing their autonomy, and allowing them to establish their state Churches. They also extended religious toleration to most of the German states and privileged the freedom of commerce, guaranteeing the free movement of goods and persons throughout much of the empire.

Several scholars of international relations have identified the Peace of Westphalia as the origin of principles crucial to modern international relations, collectively known as Westphalian sovereignty. Westphalian sovereignty is derived from the political theory of the sovereign state, which recognizes the primacy of the nation-state and its right to regulate its affairs as it sees fit. The idea of sovereignty posits that states should have unquestioned authority over their territory, free from external interference or intervention. This same line of thought can be applied to the modern world, where states are expected to respect each other's sovereignty, recognizing them as independent actors with control over their own internal affairs.

However, some historians have argued that the modern understanding of Westphalian sovereignty emerged in the nineteenth and twentieth century in relation to concerns about sovereignty during that time. These critiques argue that the idea of Westphalian sovereignty is ahistorical, with its origins obscured by the centuries that have passed since the treaty's signing.

Bibliography

Wilson, Peter H. Heart of Europe: A History of the Holy Roman Empire. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2016.

Wilson, Peter H. The Thirty Years War: Europe's Tragedy. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2009.