The late eighteenth and early nineteenth century bore witness to the rise and fall of Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) and his Military Maxims. The Corsican born, artillery trained military acolyte, experienced a meteoric rise in political and military fortunes during the tumult of the late Revolutionary period of France. His battlefield successes during the age, often against numerically larger forces, would become the basis for his methodology of warfare. This methodology, along with Napoleon’s thoughts on such matters, would coalesce and become known as his Military Maxims.

The development of Napoleon’s Maxims are closely interwoven in the man himself. The earliest indications of the fire and defiance against the traditional establishments of the day, were evidenced early in his burgeoning career. Having been sent to the Royal School of Brienne at the age of nine on 23 April 1779, Napoleon struggled to fit in with the other more cultured cadets, being smaller of build, easy to anger, and with a strong Corsican accent, the future emperor found solace in mathematics and history, especially the writings of Polybius and the military campaigns of Julius Caesar. Relentlessly persecuted by many of his classmates and even professors for everything from his then five-foot three-inch stature to his terrible French (which he never completely mastered ironically enough), Napoleon’s defiance against the odds, which would play prominently in his political and military career, became clear in one classroom incident in particular.

Having been disciplined for an act of disobedience, one master then ordered Napoleon to remove his cadet uniform, don nondescript basic clothing, and then eat his dinner on his knees in front of over 100 of his classmates. This was anathema to Napoleon who rebelled and declared “I’ll eat standing up, Monsieur, and not on my knees! In my family we kneel only before God!” This early sign of imperial bearing and taking control of a situation would factor heavily into his later campaigns, as would another incident at the school. Having been elected the de facto leader of his particular class at Brienne (due to his fortitude in putting up with constant bullying from faculty and classmen alike), Napoleon led his classmates to construct elaborate fortifications one winter from which they sallied forth to inflict a decisive defeat (via coordinated snowball volleys) on the upper classmen.

These early, yet highly formative incidents, helped to forge the core foundations of two of Napoleon’s Maxims which he would exalt and put to great effect throughout his campaigns. The first, influenced by his encounter and punishment from his disobedience, is a reflection on his belief to always keep the enemy guessing as to your actions, which is partially reflected in Maxim XVI where he states, “It is an approved maxim in war, never to do what the enemy wishes you to do, for this reason alone, that he desires it.” The second Maxim, LXVI, is birthed in Napoleon’s conduct and leadership of his “troops” efforts in taking on the upper classmen in a spirited snowball fight. It was here that the importance of leadership and especially that of a talented leader, came to the forefront for Napoleon who would go on to say that “In war the general alone can judge of certain arrangements. It depends on him alone to conquer difficulties by his own superior talents and resolution.”

Top: Napoleon studying during his time at Brienne. Looked down upon by his classmates and many of his instructors, Napoleon would spend hours devouring books on history and the campaigns of Julius Caesar. World Encylopedia.

Middle: Napoleon's leadership became evident early in his youth. Here he is depicted leading a snowball fight and charge against upper classmen. Napoleon would win. Project Gutenberg.

Bottom: Napoleon in this painting is connecting with and inspiring his Army of Italy. This would become one of Napoleon's hallmarks: the ability to fire the blood of those around him to achieve the seemingly impossible. BattlesandCampaignswordpress.com.

Napoleon would go on to spend his senior year at the Ecole Militaire in Paris where his acceptance of French culture (he was staunchly Corsican up to this point) took hold and would see him graduate and be commissioned as a second lieutenant of artillery. After a three-year posting in the south of France followed by his critically important experience at the artillery school at Auxonne (where he learned and absorbed the strategic and tactical doctrines of speed of movement and living off from the land), Napoleon would see his fortunes begin their ascent with his command of the artillery that was besieging the Royalist-controlled city of Toulon in 1793. It was here where another of his Maxims took hold.

The matter of massed resources, namely, massed artillery. To crack the defenses of Toulon, Napoleon first identified a need for massed artillery and the correct type of artillery so as to breach their defenses. Demonstrating his hallmark relentlessness, Napoleon soon acquired and amassed all that he needed which would prove critical in the capturing of the city. This Maxim of force concentration would be integral in his way of war, thus forming the basis for Maxim XXIX which states “When you have resolved to fight a battle, collect your whole force. Dispense with nothing. A single battalion sometimes decides the day.”

Bonaparte’s military prowess and acumen was in its ascendency after his role in the success at Toulon and would see him achieving rapid promotions, while winning the hearts and minds of soldiers, politicians (at least some), and the public. As general of the Army of Italy in early 1796, Bonaparte saw the value in connecting with his soldiers as a means of inspiration and motivation to achieve beyond what was possible, which would reap immense dividends in the coming campaigns against the Austrians. “Soldiers! You are hungry and naked; the government owes you much but can give you nothing. The patience and courage which you have displayed among these rocks are admirable; but they bring you no glory—not a glimmer falls upon you. I will lead you into the most fertile plains on earth. Rich provinces, opulent towns, all shall be at your disposal; there you will find honour, glory and riches. Soldiers of Italy! Will you be lacking in courage or endurance?” 

This speech to his ragged and near mutinous Army of Italy in March 1796, would be one of the earliest examples of Napoleon establishing a connection with his soldiers and one which he would reap the rewards of for many years. The matter of speeches in particular became the basis for Maxim LXI that in part states “It is not set speeches at the moment of battle that render soldiers brave. The veteran scarcely listens to them, and the recruit forgets them at the first discharge.” The irony here is that Napoleon almost decries battlefield speeches, though he from 1796 forward, would often do such a thing as a means for invigorating his troops to martial glory. This glory, based on the principles of his Military Maxims, would reach its zenith after his rise to national power in 1800 and elevate to an unseen level.

Suggested Reading

Bonaparte, Napoleon. “Napoleon Bonaparte Letters.” Archives & Special Collections, University of Nebraska-Lincoln. https://libarchives.unl.edu/project/29072/.

Bruce, Robert B., Iain Dickie, Kevin Kiley, Michael F. Pavkovic, and Frederick C. Schneid. Fighting Techniques of the Napoleonic Age 1792-1815: Equipment, Combat Skills, and Tactics. New York, NY: Thomas Dunne, 2008. 

Chandler, David. The Campaigns of Napoleon. New York, NY: Macmillan Company, 1966. 

Chandler, David. The Military Maxims of Napoleon. London, UK: Greenhill Books, 1994.