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DISTINGUISHED LECTURE & ARTICLES SERIES: MEDIEVAL MILITARY HISTORY 

MEDIEVAL MILITARY HISTORY: c.500-c.1500 · Published 13 November 2024 at 1:58pm EDT · COMMENT AND CONVERSATION

Focus on Fortification: "Crusader Castles in the Levant" by Prof. Brian Todd Carey

ABOVE: Top: This crusader castle (completed in 1170) was built on a hilltop over 2,100ft above the west bank of the Orontes valley floor, surrounded by moderately steep slopes to discourage sieges. It served as headquarters to the Hospitallers in Syria. This type of castle building was brought back to Europe by returning crusaders, influencing castle building in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Similar castle complexes were built in Spain and the Baltic by crusader forces. Damaged in the recent Syrian civil war, it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Source: Wikimedia. Click to enlarge. 

Castle construction was an important force multiplier in medieval warfare, where a small well-provisioned garrison behind well-constructed walls could hold out against a numerically larger siege force for weeks or even months until a relieving army arrived or the siege broke due to aggravating factors like battlefield attrition, disease, or the end of annual feudal obligations or campaigning contracts. During Europe’s Age of Crusades in the Latin East (1099-1291 CE) urban fortifications, existing castle improvements and new castle construction became essential elements to the new Catholic occupiers’ strategy to first secure and then expand their foothold in the Levant during the First (1096-1099) and Second Crusades (1147-1149), and hold on to imperiled possessions after the successful Muslim counter crusade by Salah al-Din ibn Ayyub (Saladin in the West, r.1174-1193), and the contraction of Latin holdings from the Third Crusade (1189-1192) forward until the end of the crusading era in the Levant, usually dated with the fall of the Crusader stronghold at Acre in 1291.    ☞  Read the full article

FEATURE SERIES: D-DAY AND THE WAR IN WESTERN EUROPE

D-DAY AND THE WAR IN WESTERN EUROPE ·  Published 28 October 2024 at 5:45pm EDT · COMMENT AND CONVERSATION

"Coming Ashore at Omaha Beach - Life or Death Belt?" by Randall S. Wells, Jr.

ABOVE: Soldiers approaching the beach, 6 June 1944, NARA (Note the position of life belts). Click to enlarge.

The opening scenes of the 1998 war epic Saving Private Ryan depict several U.S. Army soldiers wearing what appears to be a strange-looking canvas belt around their waists both before and after disembarking from their landing craft to storm Omaha Beach on D-Day. Director Steven Spielberg went to great pains to ensure as accurate a portrayal of those events as possible…even down to the equipment worn by the actors.  ☞ Read the full article

DISTINGUISHED LECTURE & ARTICLES SERIES: THE SINO-JAPANESE WAR

GLOBAL 19TH CENTURY CONFLICT · Published 25 October 2024 at 6:09pm EDT · COMMENTS AND CONVERSATION

Korean Origins of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance (1902-1922): Tonghak Peasant Revolt and Sino-Japanese War (1894–5) from an American Perspective (Part 1) by Prof. Benjamin J. Swenson

ABOVE: Battle of Ping Yang: The routing of the Chinese Army. Original wash drawing signed and dated by Schönberg; officers and soldiers at command or organization point near buildings, battle taking place in near background, wounded and other soldiers returning from battle at left. Source: Wikimedia. Click to enlarge.

In 1884 the Japanese-sanctioned Gapsin Coup (갑신정병) in Seoul failed resulting in the reassertion of a pro-Chinese regime in the Kingdom of Korea. For ten years between 1884 and 1894 Japan slowly and methodically restored its presence on the peninsula. This was accomplished by encouraging Japanese merchants and farmers to settle Korean lands, accelerating Japanese naval supremacy in East Asia, and effecting commercial treaties designed to slowly accumulate economic and political leverage at the expense of her East Asian neighbor.   ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: WAR IN THE PACIFIC

WAR IN THE PACIFIC · Published 4 August 2023 at 9:52pm EDT · COMMENT

"20-23 November 1943: Three Days of Hell - The Battle of Tarawa"

ABOVE: Marines Run Around Barbed Wire, Tarawa, November 1943. "Barbed Wire Doesn't Stop Them-A Marine with fixed bayonet leads others around a barbed wire entanglement on the beach at Tarawa as the Marines took the island. Grim determination is etched on the leader's face as he carries his rifle in the crook of his arm instead of in his wounded hand." From the Julian C. Smith Collection (COLL/202), Marine Corps Archives & Special Collections. OFFICIAL USMC PHOTOGRAPH

The Battle of Tarawa, fought on 20-23 November 1943, was another turning point in the Allied campaign against Japan during World War II. Tarawa, an atoll in the Gilbert Islands, was the most fortified island that the Americans attempted to invade during the Pacific Campaign. The Japanese garrison at Betio, the main island of Tarawa, was heavily fortified with concrete bunkers, seawalls, trenches, and an airstrip, supported by a variety of artillery including heavy and light machine guns and light tanks. Betio Island was tiny however at less than one square mile.  ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: THE KOREAN WAR 1950-1953

THE KOREAN WAR 1950-1953 · Published 11 Aug 2023 at 8:21pm EDT · COMMENT

"27 November 1950: 'Frozen Chosin' - The Battle of the Chosin Reservoir Begins"

ABOVE: Marines Clear a Ridge. 6 December 1950. Infantry of RCT-7 moving up a ridge to clear it of enemy." From the Oliver P. Smith Collection (COLL/213), Marine Corps Archives & Special Collections. OFFICIAL USMC PHOTOGRAPH.

The Battle of Chosin Reservoir took place in the harsh and freezing winter of 1950, when the People’s Volunteer Army (PVA) of China entered the war to counter the presence of United Nations Command (UNC) troops in North Korea. The Chinese force, numbering around 120,000, launched a surprise attack on the US X Corps, an element of the larger UNC contingent, that was stationed near the Chosin Reservoir. The battle had become one of the toughest and most infamous battles for the U.S. Marine Corps since World War II.  ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: THE EASTERN FRONT - WORLD WAR II

THE EASTERN FRONT · Published 26 August 2023 at 9:23pm EDT · COMMENT

"30 November 1939 to 13 March 1940: Failed Cold-Weather Gamble: The Winter War between Finland and the Soviet Union"

ABOVE: A Finnish Maxim M/32-33 machine gun nest 100 metres from Soviet forces during the Winter War, located approximately 5 kilometres north of Lemetti (area of the modern Pitkyarantsky District, Russia). This photograph is in the public domain in Finland, because either a period of 50 years has elapsed from the year of creation or the photograph was first published before 1966.

The Winter War of 1939 between Finland and the Soviet Union raised many questions for both combatants. It started when the Soviet Union invaded Finland on 30 November 1939, just three months after the outbreak of World War II. The Soviet Union was seeking to expand its borders and establish a buffer zone for the city of Leningrad, which was under threat from the Finnish border. Despite the immense strength of the Soviet army and air force, they suffered severe losses and made little headway for the initial period of the war.  ☞ Read the full article

ANCIENT, CLASSICAL, AND MEDIEVAL PERIODS - POPULAR MILITARY HISTORY

THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD - POPULAR MILITARY HISTORY · Published 22 September 2023 at 9:28pm EDT · COMMENT AND CONVERSATION

"November 1095 to 1291: Religious Wars: Crusades in the Holy Land and the Knights Templar"

ABOVE: Painting of a Crusades battlefield. War History Network license. Click to enlarge.

During the Crusades, the Knights Templar formed and emerged in Jerusalem in 1120 as an elite fighting force, equipped with excellent combat skills, weaponry, and motivated by religious tenets. (Carey 2023, 272) The order was constituted of three classes, the highest being the knight, sworn into the order and not allowed to hold property, receive private letters, or incur debt beyond their capability to repay. The Templar priest class was the chaplain that led prayers, conducted religious services, and recorded keeping. There were also the mounted men-at-arms who served as brothers and were involved in support vocations. With this infrastructure, the Templars were well-trained and heavily armed with their horses also being trained for combat, and fully armored.   ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: WAR IN THE PACIFIC

WAR IN THE PACIFIC · Published 4 December 2022 at 11:49am EDT · COMMENT

7 December 1941: Pearl Harbor attacked - America enters World War II The USS West Virginia at Pearl Harbor, 7 December 1941. Sailors rescuing a survivor from the water. The USS Tennessee is on the far side of the sunken battleship. Photo source: National WWII Museum. Click to enlarge.

29 November 1941, at sea in the Pacific aboard the USS Arizona
The nationally-ranked Navy Midshipmen football team was down 6-0 at halftime to the United States Military Academy at West Point. The 1941 inter-service rivalry was being played in front of 98,924 fans at Municipal Stadium on a sunny Saturday in Philadelphia. Lieutenant Commander Samuel Fuqua, Damage Control Officer for the USS Arizona, a ’23 graduate of the U.S. Naval Academy, listened intently to the football game in the Wardroom Officer’s Stateroom along with his friend Major Alan Shapley, USMC, aboard the Arizona. Shapley held a particular interest in the 1941 Army-Navy game. The major, current commander of the battleship’s Marine detachment was also an Annapolis graduate (Class of ’27) and former player on the Navy football team.  ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: THE U.S. CIVIL WAR - 1861-1865

U.S. CIVIL WAR AND RECONSTRUCTION · Published 30 September 2023 at 3:25pm EDT · COMMENT

"11 December 1862: Failed Union Leadership in Virginia: The Battle of Fredericksburg Begins"

Battle of Fredericksburg: The Army of the Potomac crossing the Rappahannock: in the morning of December 13, 1862, under the command of Generals Burnside, Sumner, Hooker & Franklin. Kurz & Allison, Art Publishers, Chicago, U.S., copyrighted 1888. Source: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C. Public Domain (copyright expired). Click to enlarge.

The Battle of Fredericksburg was one of the bloodiest battles of the American Civil War, fought from 11 December to 15 December 1862, in and around Fredericksburg, Virginia. The Union army, led by General Ambrose Burnside, suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of Confederate General Robert E. Lee's forces. The battle was fought in the Eastern Theater of the Civil War, and the two armies represented the largest number of armed men that had ever confronted each other.   ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: WORLD WAR II - THE EUROPEAN THEATER

D-DAY AND THE EUROPEAN THEATER · Published 20 September 2023 at 9:27pm EDT · COMMENT AND CONVERSATION

"16 December 1944: Bitter Cold in the Ardennes Forest: Battle of the Bulge Begins"

Belgium, 31 December 1944. Soldiers of the U.S. 101st Airborne move out of Bastogne, after having been besieged there for 10 days, having been tasked with driving Wehrmacht troops out of the surrounding district. Photo from the U.S. Army Center of Military History. Click to enlarge.

The Battle of the Bulge, also known as the Ardennes Offensive, was a crucial moment in World War II’s Western Front. Occurring from December 1944 to January 1945, it was Hitler’s last-ditch attempt to turn the tide of the war around. The Allied forces had already achieved significant victories on the Western Front, and the Germans were on the retreat. The Allied forces' resilience during the battle, despite the losses incurred, signified important psychological victories.   ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: WORLD WAR I

WORLD WAR I · Published 16 December 2023 at 1:48pm EDT · COMMENT 

24 December 1914: Allied and Central Powers Break for a Christmas Truce

Right: France, somewhere on the Western Front. December, 1914. Sharing a smoke. A German soldier and British soldier meet face-to-face in a Christmastime break from the war. Source: Library of Congress and in the Public Domain. Click to enlarge.

The Christmas Truce of 1914, an event that took place during World War I, is one of the most poignant and memorable moments of the war. In the midst of the fighting, soldiers on both sides of the Western Front, exhausted and cold from months of conflict, paused for a moment of peace and goodwill. Despite the efforts of the military authorities to prevent such a truce, the men on the front lines, driven by a shared humanity, broke ranks and came together in a unique display of fraternity.   ☞ Read the ful article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: WAR IN THE PACIFIC

WAR IN THE PACIFIC · Published 3 September 2023 at 12:34pm EDT · COMMENT

"26 December 1943-16 January 1944: Green Hell - The Battle of Cape Gloucester" 

ABOVE: U.S. Marine Corps infantry march through Cape Gloucester. Cape Gloucester USMC Photo No. 2. From the Frederick R. Findtner Collection (COLL/3890), Marine Corps Archives & Special Collections. OFFICIAL USMC PHOTOGRAPH.

On the second day after D-day, the action report of 27 December read "'Rains continued for the next five days. Water backed up in the swamps in rear of the shoreline, making them impassable for wheeled and tracked vehicles. The many streams which emptied into the sea in the beachhead area became raging torrents. Some even changed course. Troops were soaked to the skin and their clothes never dried out during the entire operation.' These are comments from the action report." Such was the setting for the Battle of Cape Gloucester between the Japanese and Allied forces on the island of New Britain, Territory of New Guinea, from 26 December 1943 to 16 January 1944.   ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: WORLD WAR II

WAR IN THE PACIFIC · Published 24 November 2023 at 8:09pm EDT · COMMENTS AND CONVERSTION

"9 January 1945: Beginning of the End in the Philippines: The Battle of Luzon Begins" 

Luzon, Philippines, 1945. U.S. Army infantry squad advancing with Sherman tank armored support. Source: U.S. National Archives, Public Domain. Click to enlarge.

In the early months of 1942, the Japanese Army successfully invaded and conquered all areas of the Philippines. However, the tide of the war shifted when Allied forces launched a daring amphibious operation on the island of Leyte on 20 October 1944. This was a pivotal moment in the ongoing battle for the Philippines, as it marked the beginning of a concerted effort to liberate the country from Japanese occupation. The mission involved significant strategic planning and the coordination of troops, ships, and aircraft from multiple countries, and the result was a decisive victory for the Allies that helped to turn the tide of the war in the Pacific.    ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: LENINGRAD AND THE EASTERN FRONT

THE EASTERN FRONT · Published 14 October 2023 at 7:33pm EDT · COMMENT

"27 January 1944: 872 Days of Starvation and Death - The Siege of Leningrad Ends"

Right: Leningrad, Soviet Union. September 1941. German soldiers in front of burning houses and a church. Source: Wikimedia. Click to enlarge.

The Siege and Battle for Leningrad (8 September 1941 – 27 January 1944) were events of enormous significance, yet they are often overlooked in the history of World War II. This was a microcosm of the War on the Eastern Front, an epic clash that had far-reaching implications for both the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany. In September 1941, Nazi Germany launched Operation Barbarossa, with the primary objective of capturing Leningrad, which was situated in the north. Hitler's strategy was to clear his Baltic flank and link up with Finnish troops, downplaying the importance of Moscow despite the objections of his army commanders.   ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: THE HOLOCAUST, SHOAH

THE HOLOCAUST "SHOAH" · Published 25 October 2023 at 8:20pm EDT · COMMENTS AND CONVO

"27 January 1945: Auschwitz is Liberated by the Soviet Red Army"

ABOVE: Wearing adult-size prisoner jackets, child survivors of Auschwitz are led by relief workers and Soviet soldiers through a narrow passage between two barbed-wire fences. Standing next to the nurse are Miriam and Eva Mozes. Behind them (wearing white hats) are Judy and Lea Csenghery. Both sets of sisters are twins. From the Soviet film of the liberation of Auschwitz, taken by the film unit of the First Ukrainian Front. Photo Source: Wytwornia Filmow Dokumentalnych i Fabularnych. Copyright: Public Domain. Click to enlarge.

On 27 January 1945, the Soviet army entered Auschwitz concentration camp and liberated around 7,000 prisoners still alive in the Main Camp, Birkenau, and Monowitz. For years, this complex had served as a killing center for Nazi Germany, where over 1.1 million people had been murdered, mostly Jews. The prisoners who were mostly ill and dying greeted them as true liberators. This historic moment marked the end of the deadliest phase of the Holocaust, which saw millions of Jews and others brutally killed by Nazi Germany between 1940 and 1945.    ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: THE VIETNAM WAR: 1955-75

THE VIETNAM WAR: 1955-75 · Published 12 November 2023 at 2:21pm EDT · COMMENTS AND CONVERSATION

"21 January 1968: Fighting in the Hills - The Battle of Khe Sanh begins"

Khe Sanh, January 1968. CH-46A Sea Knight helicopters drop U.S. Marines at Khe Sanh Combat Base. Public Domain, click to enlarge.

The Battle of Khe Sanh, which took place in the Khe Sanh area of northwestern Quảng Trị Province, Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam), during the Vietnam War, is often considered one of the most significant battles of the conflict. The battle was fought from 21 January to 9 July 1968, between two divisional-size elements of the North Vietnamese People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) and two regiments of the United States Marine Corps (6000 strong), with support from the United States Army, the U.S. Air Force, and a small number of Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) troops.   ☞  Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: WORLD WAR II

WAR IN THE PACIFIC · Published 27 October 2023 at 9:26pm EDT · COMMENT

"31 January 1944: Island Hopping - The Battle of Kwajalein"

ABOVE: Marine infantry fighting their way inland. Kwajalein USMC Photo No. K-20. From the Frederick R. Findtner Collection (COLL/3890), Marine Corps Archives & Special Collections. OFFICIAL USMC PHOTOGRAPH. Click to enlarge.

The Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign marked a significant chapter in the Pacific theatre of World War II, with a series of battles spanning from August 1942 to February 1944. Led by the United States Pacific Fleet and Marine Corps, the primary objective was to establish airfields and naval bases, vital for air and naval support operations across the Central Pacific. Under the code names Operation Galvanic, Kourbash, Flintlock and Catchpole, the campaign involved seizing control of strategic locations such as Tarawa, Makin, Kwajalein, Eniwetok and Majuro.   ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: THE VIETNAM WAR

THE VIETNAM WAR: 1955-75 · Published 10 November 2023 at 7:41pm EDT · COMMENTS AND CONVERSATION

31 January 1968: The War in Vietnam Turns - The Battle of Hue Begins"

Hue, South Vietnam, 4 February 1968: U.S. Marine infantry firing from cover behind a wall, keeping low from NVA sniper fire. Possibly at the Citadel. Public Domain, click to enlarge.

The Battle of Hue, also known as the Siege of Hue, was one of the most significant and bloody events of the Vietnam War. The intense fighting between the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces, and U.S. Marines and Army soldiers and ARVN (South Vietnamese troops) lasted from 31 January to 2 March 1968, resulting in the death of thousands of soldiers and civilians. This battle challenged the confidence of the American public, who increasingly questioned the U.S. military involvement in the conflict.   ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: WORLD WAR II

WAR IN NORTH AFRICA · Published 23 November 2023 at 8:46pm EDT · COMMENT

"19-24 February 1943: First Blood - The Battle of Kasserine Pass"

North Africa, Tunis.- Field Marshal Erwin Rommel (saluting with marshal's baton) and Lieutenant Colonel Fritz Bayerlein, standing in the car, passing motorized troops, including soldiers in captured American half-track M3. Source: Wikipemia, Public Domain. Click to enlarge. The Battle of Kasserine Pass in Tunisia was a significant moment during World War II as it marked the first major engagement between American and German forces. The Kasserine Pass was a critical point of convergence for the Allied supply lines, which were essential for the success of the North African campaign. The battle took place in Tunisia on 14 February 1943 and was a resounding defeat for the United States Army.    ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: WAR IN THE PACIFIC

WAR IN THE PACIFIC · Published 29 October 2023 at 9:51pm EDT · COMMENT AND CONVERSATION

"19 February 1945: 'Uncommon valor was a common virtue' and 'A Marine Corps for the next 500 years' - The Battle of Iwo Jima Begins"

Marines landing on the beaches of Iwo Jima. Source: Archives Branch, USMC History Division. Click to enlarge. The Battle of Iwo Jima was a pivotal moment in the Pacific War during World War II. The United States military launched Operation Detachment on 19 February 1945, with the objective of capturing the island of Iwo Jima from the Imperial Japanese Army. The island had two airfields, South Field and Central Field, that the Americans needed to capture as they would provide important airstrips for their planes. In the following weeks, the battle saw some of the most vicious fighting of the Pacific War, leading to the deaths of thousands on both sides. The Japanese Army positions on the island were heavily fortified, with an extensive network of bunkers, hidden artillery positions, and 18 kilometers of tunnels. The Japanese garrison of about 21,000 combined army and navy troops were under command to wait until the Marines advanced inland before launching their attack. This strategy took a heavy toll on the Americans' progress as they faced relentless enemy fire from Japanese positions along the way. Lessons learned earlier in the war for the Japanese allowed them to effectively implement enfilade fire and defense-in-depth tactics which proved to be beneficial. ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: THE VIETNAM WAR

THE VIETNAM WAR · Published 9 December 2023 at 2:16pm EDT · COMMENT

"22 February 1967: Operation Junction City - The First U.S. Army Combat Airborne Operation in Vietnam Begins"

Tay Ninh City, Vietnam 1967. Operation Junction City was the largest U.S. operation of the Vietnam War to "find and break the spine of the Viet Cong, destroy the headquarters," focusing on one target, the northern base of Tay Ninh. The operation was divided into two waves. Source: Public Domain. Click to enlarge.

Operation Junction City was an 82-day military operation that took place during the Vietnam War in 1967. The operation was a joint effort between United States and Republic of Vietnam (RVN) forces aimed at locating the elusive Communist uprising in South Vietnam, the Central Office of South Vietnam. The operation involved the equivalent of nearly three divisions of U.S. troops and was the first U.S. combat airborne operation since the Korean War. The grand tactical plan for Junction City involved a "hammer and anvil" tactic, with airborne forces "flushing out" the VC headquarters and driving it against a prepared "anvil" of other forces. The U.S. forces included most of the 1st Infantry Division and the 25th Infantry Division, including the airborne troops of the 173rd Airborne Brigade and large armored elements of the 11th Armored Cavalry Regiment.   ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR - THE VIETNAM WAR ERA: 1955-75

THE VIETNAM WAR ERA - 1955-75 · Published 4 December 2023 at 8:58pm EDT · COMMENT

"13 March 1954: Prologue to Vietnam: The Battle of Dien Bien Phu Begins"

ABOVE: 2 April 1954: French union soldiers with automatic weapons move up over the battered Dien Bien Phu terrain in Indochina during a counterattack on communist-led Vietminh besiegers. The French garrison commander called for paratroop reinforcements today to help withstand continued suicidal assaults by the rebels trying to penetrate the northwestern Vietnam bastion. Source: In the Public Domain. Click to enlarge.

The occurrence of significant historical events is never a coincidence, especially when it comes to major conflicts and wars throughout history. These events are shaped by a multitude of political, economic, imperialistic, and societal factors that are instrumental in propelling countries into war. The Vietnam War, for instance, cannot be fully understood without considering the aftermath of World War II. One indelible event that ought to be considered in this context is the pivotal Battle of Dien Bien Phu. This battle was a significant turning point in Vietnamese history, and it marked the end of French colonial influence in the region. It lasted for over two months, from March to May 1954, and had a detrimental effect on both sides of the war. Dien Bien Phu was fought between French troops, who aimed to maintain their empire by controlling Indochina, and Vietnamese soldiers, who were motivated by the desire to reclaim their sovereignty. The Vietnamese were ultimately successful, thanks to their superior tactics, and with this, colonialism in Asia faced a grueling defeat that would shape the region's future. The impact of the Battle of Dien Bien Phu went beyond just Vietnam, as it inspired nationalist movements throughout the entire Asian continent.    ☞ Read the full article