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DISTINGUISHED LECTURE & ARTICLES SERIES: 19TH CENTURY CONFLICT

19TH CENTURY CONFLICT · Published 24 March 2025 at 12:38am EDT · COMMENTS AND CONVESATION

“President Tyler Mentions a ‘Massacre’ to Congress: The Beheading of Francisco de Sentmanat in Tabasco and Pre-War US-Mexican Relations, 1841–44" by Prof. Benjamin J. Swenson

ABOVE: Antique map of Central America and Yucatan. Source: War History Ntework license.

The origins of the informal two-year alliance between Texas and Yucatan (1840–42), which served the purpose of frustrating an invasion of the former by Mexican authorities, originated in their initial cooperation and support of an insurrection in Tabasco. Although revolts were not uncommon in early nineteenth-century Mexico, the rebellion that erupted in late 1839 in the small but productive state abutting Yucatan on the southern end of the Gulf tested the authority of a national government still recovering from the humiliating three-month French blockade of Veracruz – an episode known as the Pastry War (1838-39).    ☞ The full article

FEATURED ARTICLES SERIES: NAPOLEON AND RUSSIA

NAPOLEON · Published 2 March 2025 at 7:38am EDT · COMMENTS AND CONVERSATION

“Napoleon's Continental System: A Double-Edged Sword" by Michael G. Stroud

ABOVE: Napoleon's Continental System, as depicted here from a political drawing from 1807 with Napoleon at odds with his eternal enemy the British, never achieved its goals. Other courses of action likely would have provided more favorable outcomes for him and the French then what his economical stranglehold offered. WikiMedia Commons.

Napoleon held the whole of Russia in contempt from its highest official, Tsar Alexander I down to the lowest peasant. Herein lies the rub by 1810: keep his alliance with Russia as a lackluster participant in his Continental System or turn his back on them? This disdain in many ways helped drive Napoleon to invade Russia, as he could not bear the embarrassment of them knowingly and willingly disobeying his edict as to the parameters of the Continental System. Even when presented with various reports and statements from his recalled ambassador to Russia as to their preparations, resolve, and improvements since their defeat at Friedland, Napoleon contemptuously replied “’One good battle will put an end to all your friend Alexander’s excellent resolutions, and to all his fortifications built on sand.’”[1]  ☞ The full article

DISTINGUISHED LECTURE & ARTICLES SERIES: MEDIEVAL MILITARY HISTORY 

MEDIEVAL MILITARY HISTORY: c.500-c.1000 CE · Published 1 March 2025 at 7:52pm EDT · COMMENTS

Focus on Tactics : Byzantium versus Persia at the Battle of Dara, 530 CE by Prof. Brian Todd Carey

ABOVE: Detailed map of the Byzantine-Sassanian Frontier. Click to enlarge.

The high point of Byzantine power and territorial expansion took place in the sixth century during the reign of Emperor Justinian (r.527-565 CE), often referred to as “the Great.”  Described by his chroniclers as “the emperor who never sleeps,” Justinian was a vigorous, intelligent and ambitious ruler who was determined to reestablish the Roman Empire throughout the Mediterranean basin, ordering Byzantine armies to fend off Sassanian Persian attacks on the eastern frontiers of Anatolia and the Levant while also regaining parts of Italy from the Ostrogoths and North Africa from the Vandals. In 527, Justinian inherited an empire policed by five mobile field armies and a large number of smaller regional armies (limitanai) located along and behind the frontiers.  ☞ The full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: U.S. CIVIL WAR - 1861-1865

U.S. CIVIL WAR - 1861-1865 · Published 13 JANUARY 2024 at 4:37pm EDT · COMMENTS AND CONVERSATION

"6-7 April 1862: Exorbitant Casualties in Tennessee: The Battle of Shiloh"

ABOVE: The Battle of Shiloh, or Pittsburg Landing, April 6th & 7th, 1862 / J.H. Bufford's lithograph, Boston. Names: J.H. Bufford's Lithograph. Created/Published: Boston: Published by Oliver Ditson & Co., c1862. Headings: United States, History, Civil War, 1861-1865-Campaigns & battles; Shiloh, Battle of, Tenn., 1862; United States--History--Civil War, 1861-1865--Songs & music. Source: Library of Congress. Click to enlarge.

The Battle of Shiloh was a turning point in the American Civil War and a defining moment in the history of the United States. The two-day conflict, fought on April 6-7, 1862, between General Ulysses S. Grant's Union forces and General Albert Sidney Johnston's Confederate troops, resulted in a Union victory that changed the course of the war. The battle was fought in southwestern Tennessee, along the Tennessee River, and was known by the Union as the Battle of Pittsburg Landing, after the landing where Grant's troops disembarked.   ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: WAR IN THE PACIFIC - THE PHILIPPINES

WAR IN THE PACIFIC · Published 6 JANUARY 2024 at 3:57pm EDT · COMMENTS AND CONVERSATION

"9 April 1942: Walk to Live - The Bataan Death March Begins"

ABOVE: April 1942: U.S. Army soldiers surrendering on Bataan. Source: U.S. National Archives. In the Public Domain. Click to enlarge.

The Bataan Death March marked one of the darkest moments of the Second World War. In April 1942, the Imperial Japanese Army ordered nearly 75,000 Filipino and American soldiers, who had surrendered in the battle of Bataan, to march 65 miles through the sweltering heat of the Philippines without food, water, or medical care. The aim of this forced march was to take the prisoners to different prison camps where they would be held captive under brutal and inhumane conditions.  ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: WORLD WAR II - THE HOLOCAUST

WORLD WAR II - THE HOLOCAUST · Published 26 March 2023 10:02am · COMMENT

"19 April-16 May 1943: The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising"

ABOVE: Modern day, Warsaw, Poland. Uprising Monument. Source: War History Network license.

In the backdrop of World War II, German authorities systematically initiated the process of ghettoization across occupied Poland, striving to isolate and control the Jewish population. The establishment of the Warsaw Ghetto in October 1940 marked the beginning of a horrific chapter for over 400,000 Jews, who were forcibly relocated into an area of merely 3.3 square kilometers. This concentration, the largest of its kind, subjected its inhabitants to inhumane living conditions, rampant disease, and a death toll exacerbated by starvation and brutal enforcement by Nazi forces under the command of Odilo Globocnik and Ludwig Hahn.   ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: WORLD WAR I

WORDL WAR I ·Published 26 March 2023 at 10:05am EDT · COMMENT

"21 April 1918: Manfred von Richthofen - The Red Baron Shot Down"

Germany, 23 April 1917. German Federal Archives caption: "The famous Fighter Squadron 11 with Manfred von Richthofen at the controls of his 'Red Airplane'. From this fighter squadron emerged Jagdgeschwader I, which officially bore the name 'von Richhofen'. During its one-year existence in 1917/18, the Richthofen Squadron won no less than 1,000 victories. At the age of 25, Rittmeister von Richthofen, recipient of the Order Pour le Merite, had become commander of the squadron, which, according to a military decree, had the combat value of several divisions on the sector of the front where it was deployed." Source: Wikipedia. In the Public Domain. Click to enlarge

Manfred von Richthofen, widely known as the 'Red Baron', was a figure of valor and tactical prowess during the tumultuous skies of the First World War. Born into an aristocratic Prussian family on 2 May 1892 in Breslau, Germany (present-day Wrocław, Poland), he would rise to become a legendary German flying ace, claiming an unparalleled 80 victories against Allied aircraft.   ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: WORLD WAR I

WORLD WAR I · Published 26 March 2023 at 10:07am EDT · COMMENT

"22 April-25 May 1915: The Second Battle of Ypres, Belgium"

An artist's interpretation of the Second Battle of Ypres from the Allied perspective. Painted by Canadian Richard Jack in 1917; from the Canadian War Museum Collection. In the Public Domain.

The Second Battle of Ypres, fought from April 22 to May 25, 1915, marked a significant turning point in World War I as it was the first time Germany used poison gas on the Western Front. The Second Battle of Ypres was fought for control of the strategically important area east and south of the Flemish town of Ypres in western Belgium. It was the second battle fought in this region, following the previous autumn's First Battle of Ypres.The battle comprised four distinct engagements: the Battle of Gravenstafel Ridge, the Battle of St. Julien, the Battle of Frezenberg, and the Battle of Bellewaarde.  ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: 19TH CENTURY WAR AND CONFLICT

19TH CENTURY WAR AND CONFLICT· Published 28 April 2023 at 1:24pm EDT · COMMENT

27 April - 13 May 1805: To the Shores of Tripoli: The Battle of Derna (North Africa)

ABOVE: First Lieutenant Presley O'Bannon, USMC (with raised rifle) at Derna. Source: Colonel Charles Waterhouse, U.S. Marines (Marine Corps Art Collection). Public Domain; click to enlarge.

The Battle of Derna, fought on April 27, 1805, was a significant turning point in the First Barbary War, also referred to as the Tripolitan War or the Barbary Coast War. The conflict marked one of the earliest military engagements in U.S. history and stemmed from trade disputes between the United States and Tripolitania, a state within the Barbary Coast — a region notorious for state-sponsored piracy during the 18th and early 19th centuries.   ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: AMERICAN CIVIL WAR: 1861-1865

AMERICAN CIVIL WAR · Published 26 March 2023 at 10:09am EDT · COMMENT

"30 April - 6 May 1863: A Costly Confederate Victory: Battle of Chancellorsville"

30 April 1863: Lieutenant George B. Winslow commanding 1st New York Light Artillery Regiment. 1st New York Artillery Light Regiment was engaged in the Chancellorsville Campaign, attached to Artillery Brigade, 3rd Army Corps, from April 27-May 6, 1863. Source: Library of Congress, https://bit.ly/42CIPJD. In the Public Domain. Click to enlarge

The Battle of Chancellorsville is often epitomized as a paragon of military leadership and strategy, particularly from the Confederate perspective due to General Robert E. Lee's masterful employment of complex battle tactics in the face of considerable numerical disadvantage. This encounter, which spanned from April 30 to May 6, 1863, unfolded near the village of Spotsylvania, Virginia, and was a pivotal event in the American Civil War, underpinned by the tactical acumen that contributed to its classification as "Lee's Perfect Battle."   ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: THE VIETNAM WAR: 1955-1975

THE VIETNAM WAR: 1955-1975 ·Published 26 March 2023 at 10:11am EDT · COMMENT

"30 April 1975: Fall of Saigon: The Vietnam War Ends"

Saigon, South Vietnam, 29 April 1975. U.S. Marine PFC Forrest M. Turner, Jr. provides security as two Sikorsky CH-53 helicopters land at the Defense Attaché Office compound during Operation Frequent Wind. Military helicopters dropped the ground security component at landing zones. Once on the ground they set up security positions. Source: Wikipedia. In the Public Domain.

The 30th of April, 1975, marked a solemn and significant milestone in world history—the end of one of the most protracted and tragic conflicts, the Vietnam War. Known by several names, including the Second Indochina War, the Vietnam War was emblematic of the Cold War and a brutal testament to the proxy battles fought between the world's two superpowers and their allies. The fall of Saigon was the dramatic conclusion that profoundly altered geopolitical landscapes and human migrations. A quick glance at the historical latticework of policy would reveal a complex entwining of interests. Following the First Indochina War and the 1954 Geneva Conference, the country was partitioned, and the stage was set for the tumultuous years to come. The U.S. saw Vietnam as an inevitable battleground against Communist expansion, and through financial and military support, it threw itself behind the fledgling government of South Vietnam.   ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: WAR IN THE PACIFIC

WAR IN THE PACIFIC · Published 6 May 2022 at 9:45am EDT · COMMENT

"May 1945: Desmond Doss wins the Congressional Medal of Honor"

Corporal Desmond Doss, CMOH Winner, U.S. Army, and his wife Dorothy in 1945. Photograph in the Public Domain (Click to enlarge). Click to enlarge

Desmond Thomas Doss, a United States Army corporal, served as a combat medic in an infantry company during World War II. Guided by his steadfast Seventh-day Adventist beliefs, Doss refused to bear arms despite the dangerous realities of war. His unwavering commitment to his principles and his remarkable courage on the battlefield earned him a place in history as one of the most extraordinary conscientious objectors to serve in the U.S. military.   ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: WORLD WAR II

WAR IN THE PACIFIC · Published 20 January 2024 at 10:04am EDT · COMMENT

"4 May to 8 May 1942: Carrier War: Battle of the Coral Sea"

View on the flight deck of USS Lexington (CV-2), at about 1500 hours on 8 May 1942, during the Battle of the Coral Sea. The ship's air group is spotted aft, with Grumman F4F-3 fighters nearest the camera. SBD scout bombers and TBD-1 torpedo planes are parked further aft. Smoke is rising around the after aircraft elevator from fires burning in the hangar. Note fire hose, wheels, propellers, servicing stands and other gear scattered on the flight deck. Source: Official U.S. Navy Photograph. In the Public Domain. Click to enlarge

The Battle of the Coral Sea--a turning point for the War in the Pacific? Yes, as Japan lost two key aircraft carriers which would later prove costly at the Battle of Midway in June of 1942. This epic sea battle took place from 4 May to 8 May 1942. The Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) faced off against the United States and Australian naval and air forces, engaging in a revolutionary shift in tactics. It was the first naval battle in history where opposing fleets never sighted nor fired upon one another. Instead, they attacked over the horizon with aircraft carriers, marking a turning point in how naval warfare was conducted. The incorporation of aircraft carriers in naval battles had revolutionized warfare, and the United States and Australia had mastered it. The Allies' victory in the Battle of Coral Sea was vital in turning the tide of World War II's Pacific conflict. It forced Japan to reassess its military strategy and capabilities and reminded them that they were not invincible. ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: WORLD WAR II AND THE WAR IN EUROPE

WAR IN EUROPE · Published 28 January 2024 at 5:29pm EDT · COMMENT

"11 May 1941: Destruction from the Skies: Luftwaffe Blitz Over the United Kingdom Ends"

"The ruins of Coventry cathedral two days after the German Luftwaffe air raid on the city on the night of 14 November 1940.Coventry, an important engineering and armaments producing centre, was raided on 14-15 November 1940. German bombers dropped 503 tons of high explosive and 30,000 incendiary bombs on the city. 568 people were killed and 850 seriously injured. The medieval Cathedral was destroyed. Almost one third of the city's houses were made uninhabitable and 35% of its shops destroyed. In a relatively small city with a population of just over 200,000, everyone knew someone killed or injured in the raid. A new verb coventrieren – 'to Coventrate' was used by the Germans to describe the level of destruction." Source: Imperial War Museum, "The Blitz Around Britain"

The Blitz was a time of terror for the people of the United Kingdom during World War II. From 7 September 1940 to 11 May 1941--8 months and 5 days--German bombers conducted mass air attacks against towns, cities, and industrial targets, causing widespread devastation and destruction. Over 40,000 civilians were killed during the Blitz, with almost half of them in London, where more than a million houses were destroyed or damaged. The Blitz was launched by Adolf Hitler and Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring, the commander-in-chief of the Luftwaffe, in an attempt to force the British into submission. The Germans conducted mass air attacks against industrial targets, towns, and cities, beginning with raids on London towards the end of the Battle of Britain in 1940. The Luftwaffe had lost the Battle of Britain and the German air fleets were ordered to attack London, to draw RAF Fighter Command into a battle of annihilation.   ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: WORLD WAR I AND THE INTERWAR YEARS

WORLD WAR I AND THE INTERWAR YEARS · Published 5 July 2022 at 9:31am EDT · COMMENT AND CONVERSATION

"1 June 1918: Belleau Wood: A Turning Point in World War One"

ABOVE: Georges Scott (1873-1943) illustration "American Marines in Belleau Wood (1918)" - originally published in the French Magazine "Illustrations." Source: Wikimedia. In the Public Domain. Click to enlarge.

Amid the unyielding battlegrounds of World War One, one particular engagement stands out as a testament to valor and strength, etching an indelible mark in the annals of warfare. The Battle of Belleau Wood, fought between the U.S. Marine Corps and the German Army from June 1st to June 26th, 1918, near the Marne River in France, remains not just a military triumph but an emblem of human resilience against overwhelming odds. With the German spring offensive looming large on the Western Front, the Allies faced a critical juncture. Their backs against the wall, the U.S. 2nd and 3rd Divisions, bolstered by relentless infantry and strategic maneuvering, stood firm against the German tide. This article delves into the Battle of Belleau Wood, dissecting its critical moments and unraveling the profound significance that reverberated across the landscape of World War One.   ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: WWII: BATTLE FOR THE SEAS

WWII: BATTLE FOR THE SEAS · Published 25 March 2023 at 11:12am EDT · COMMENT

"4-7 June 1942: The Battle of Midway - Turning Point for the War in the Pacific"

U.S. Navy Torpedo Squadron 6 (VT-6) Douglas TBD-1 Devastator aircraft are prepared for launching aboard the aircraft carrier USS Enterprise (CV-6) at about 0730-0740 hrs, 4 June 1942. Eleven of the fourteen TBDs launched from Enterprise are visible. Three more TBDs and ten Grumman F4F-4 Wildcat fighters must still be pushed into position before launching can begin. The TBD in the left front is Number Two (BuNo 1512), flown by Ensign Severin L. Rombach and Aviation Radioman 2nd Class W.F. Glenn. Along with eight other VT-6 aircraft, this plane and its crew were lost attacking Japanese aircraft carriers somewhat more than two hours later. The heavy cruiser USS Pensacola (CA-24) is in the right distance and a destroyer is in plane guard position at left. Source: Naval History and Heritage Command under the digital ID 80-G-41686. In the Public Domain.

The Battle of Midway, fought between 4 and 7 June 1942, stands as one of the pivotal battles in the Pacific Theater and turning point from which Japan would not recover. Six months on from Japan's raid on Pearl Harbor and a month after the Battle of the Coral Sea, the United States Navy won a decisive victory over the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN). Two strategic factors contributed to the battle: the Japanese intended to establish a "barrier" to extend their defensive perimeter following the Doolittle air raid on Tokyo and aimed to entice American carriers into a trap to clear for further offensives. Conversely, American cryptographers' remarkable breakthroughs enabled the U.S. Navy to set an ambush of their own, tipping the scales before a single shot was fired.   ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: D-DAY AND THE WAR IN EUROPE

D-DAY AND THE WAR IN EUROPE · Published 24 February 2024 at 4:47pm EDT · COMMENT

""6 June 1944: D-Day Through Different Lenses"

ABOVE: Normandy, France. 6 June 1944. Photograph taken by Chief Photographer's Mate (CPHoM) Robert F. Sargent, U.S. Coast Guard. An LCVP from the U.S. Coast Guard-manned USS Samuel Chase disembarks troops of Company A, 16th Infantry, 1st Infantry Division (the Big Red One) wading onto the Fox Green section of Omaha Beach (Calvados, Basse-Normandie, France). Sources: U.S. Library of Congress, National Archives. In the Public Domain. Click to enlarge. Click to enlarge.

The images of the Normandy landings taken by photographers such as Life Magazine photographer Robert Capa and Coast Guard Chief Photographer’s Mate Robert F. Sargent are ingrained in the collective memory of World War II. These visual testimonies provide an insight into one of history's pivotal moments, laden with raw emotion, perilous endeavors, and unyielding courage. Robert F. Sargent captured "Into the Jaws of Death," an image enveloped with the same raw authenticity as Capa’s, portraying the immediate moments of troops braving the surf under fire. While Sargent remained on his landing craft, Capa dared further, stepping onto the deadly beach and documenting the soldiers' arduous progress amidst chaos and bombardment.   ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: THE VIETNAM WAR

THE VIETNAM WAR ERA: 1955-1975 · Published 20 April 2024 at 5:16am EDT · COMMENT

"13 June 1971: The Pentagon Papers Released: Legacy and Lessons in Transparency and Truth"

Front page of the New York Times on 11 May 1973. The New York Times and The Vietnam Project.

Studying the Pentagon Papers remains relevant today, as there are ongoing concerns about transparency and honesty from the past Biden administration in the U.S. Pundits and analysts have shown Joe Biden and members of that administration of not being forthright and honest with Congress and the American public on critical policy decisions and issues adversely affecting domestic security and public safety, drawing comparisons to the lack of transparency revealed by the Pentagon Papers about the Johnson administration's handling of the Vietnam War. While the contexts differ, the underlying issues of government accountability, truthfulness, and the public's right to know are pertinent in both cases.   ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: WAR IN THE PACIFIC

WAR IN THE PACIFIC · Published 6 April 2023 at 8:53pm EDT · COMMENTS AND CONVERSATION

"15 June 1944: D-Day in the Pacific - The Battle of Saipan Begins"

Marines carry one of their own from battle. Saipan USMC Photo No. 1-15. From the Frederick R. Findtner Collection (COLL/3890), Marine Corps Archives & Special Collections. OFFICIAL USMC PHOTOGRAPH.

The Battle of Saipan, fought from 15 June to 9 July 1944, was a critical episode in the Pacific campaign of World War II. This clash unfolded on the island of Saipan, located within the Mariana Islands, marking a pivotal moment in Operation Forager. The meticulously orchestrated assault was initiated when the expansive fleet set sail from Pearl Harbor, a strategic movement that occurred concurrently with the operations of Operation Overlord in Europe.   ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: WORLD WAR II - THE EASTERN FRONT

WORLD WAR II - THE EASTERN FRONT · Published 22 April 2023 10:02am · COMMENT

"22 June 1941: An Invasion Begins: The Catastrophic Miscalculation of Operation Barbarossa"

ABOVE: Pz.Kpfw 38(t) Ausf.E/F, from 7. Panzer-Division during the Operation Barbarossa. Source: flickr: Panzertruppen.

Operation Barbarossa stands as one of the most monumental military endeavors and a seminal turning point in the history of World War II. Launched on June 22, 1941, this invasion by Nazi Germany into the heartland of the Soviet Union, was not only the largest land offensive in human history, involving around 10 million combatants, but also a catastrophic error in strategic judgment by Adolf Hitler. Searheaded by German forces and supported by Axis allies, the operation, named after the medieval Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, sought to decimate communism and forcibly seize territory for German repopulation. In its wake, Operation Barbarossa hoped to commandeer economic resources, including the oil reserves of the Caucasus, and the fertile grounds of Ukraine and Byelorussia.  ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: AMERICAN CIVIL WAR AND RECONSTRUCTION

AMERICAN CIVIL WAR AND RECONSTRUCTION · Published 20 April 2024 at 7:27pm EDT · COMMENT

"25 June-26 June 1876: The Battle of Little Bighorn"

ABOVE: "Custer's Last Stand" by artist Edgar Samuel Paxson (1852–1919) oil on canvas painted in 1899. Source: Wikimedia, in the Public Domain. Click to enlarge.

The significance of the Battle of Little Bighorn extends well beyond the immediate outcome of the conflict. This consequential showdown between Native American tribes and United States forces encapsulates the height of struggle for control over the Great Plains. Painted against a backdrop of tension, the resounding Native American victory underscored their fortitude in repelling encroachment upon their lands, while simultaneously foreshadowing a devastating aftermath for the indigenous tribes – an ultimate defeat and relegation to reservations. It stands as a pivotal yet paradoxical chapter in their resistance; a poignant triumph followed by the erosion of freedom and age-old traditions.   ☞ Read the full article

CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: AMERICAN CIVIL WAR AND RECONSTRUCTION

AMERICAN CIVIL WAR AND RECONSTRUCTION · Published 6 July 2022 at 7:40pm EDT · COMMENT

"1-3 July 1863: Harvest of Death at The Battle of Gettysburg"

ABOVE: Gettysburg, Pa., circa fall 2018. "The Angle," is a designated area on the Gettysburg Battlefield notable for several historical features. It encompasses the 1863 grove of trees, which served as a target landmark during Pickett's Charge, the 1892 monument marking the Confederacy's high-water mark, a rock wall, and various other monuments commemorating the Battle of Gettysburg. Source: War History Network license. Click to enlarge.

The Battle of Gettysburg represented a pivotal moment in the Civil War. Over the course of three days, the conflict resulted in more than 50,000 estimated casualties, making it the bloodiest single battle of the war. Following a series of defensive successes in Virginia, General Lee aimed to secure a victory north of the Mason-Dixon line, intending to compel a negotiated end to the hostilities. However, his defeat at Gettysburg thwarted this objective. Subsequently, the beleaguered general retreated southward, accompanied by a wagon train of wounded soldiers heading towards the Potomac. Union General Meade did not capitalize on this moment to pursue the retreating Confederates, missing a critical chance to encircle Lee's forces and force a Confederate surrender. Consequently, the deeply divisive war continued for an additional two years.  ☞ Read the full article