TRENDING SINO-JAPANESE WAR · NAPOLEON'S POLICE · BATTLE OF THYMBRA · ROMAN SIEGE OF CARTHAGE · BOOK REVIEWS
DISTINGUISHED LECTURE & ARTICLES SERIES: THE SINO-JAPANESE WAR
GLOBAL 19TH CENTURY CONFLICT · Published 25 October 2024 at 6:09pm EDT · COMMENTS AND CONVERSATION
Korean Origins of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance (1902-1922): Tonghak Peasant Revolt and Sino-Japanese War (1894–5) from an American Perspective (Part 1) by Prof. Benjamin J. Swenson
ABOVE: Battle of Ping Yang: The routing of the Chinese Army. Original wash drawing signed and dated by Schönberg; officers and soldiers at command or organization point near buildings, battle taking place in near background, wounded and other soldiers returning from battle at left. Source: Wikimedia. Click to enlarge.
In 1884 the Japanese-sanctioned Gapsin Coup (갑신정병) in Seoul failed resulting in the reassertion of a pro-Chinese regime in the Kingdom of Korea. For ten years between 1884 and 1894 Japan slowly and methodically restored its presence on the peninsula. This was accomplished by encouraging Japanese merchants and farmers to settle Korean lands, accelerating Japanese naval supremacy in East Asia, and effecting commercial treaties designed to slowly accumulate economic and political leverage at the expense of her East Asian neighbor. The actions of Japan during this period, in combination with a growing anti-elitist sentiment among Koreans toward their ruling class, resulted in a rebellion by peasants whose main goals included ousting foreigners from the country and fortifying it from outside influence by creating a strong and modern nation. ☞ Read the full article
ABOVE Depiction of Sino-Japanese War and the Great Victory of the Japanese Navy near Dagushan print in by Ogata Gekko. Vintage woodblock illustration, old woodblock art print. Source: War History Network license.
DISTINGUISHED LECTURE & ARTICLES SERIES: CLASSICAL MILITARY HISTORY
CLASSICAL MILITARY HISTORY: c.1000 BCE-500 CE · Published 19 October 2024 at 11:54am EDT · COMMENTS AND CONVERSATION
Focus on Tactics: “Achaemenid Persian Military Archery at the Battle of Thymbra, 547 BCE” by Prof. Brian Todd Carey
ABOVE: (Left) Although renown as archers during the Persian Wars against Greece, Persian bowmen were also issued defensive sidearms to defend themselves in close quarter combat. (Right) Archaic and early Hellenic Greek geometric vase paintings provide examples of different kinds of bows wielded in these eras, including simple segment self-bows, single curved composite bows, and double convex Scythian bows.
The classical Near East was shaped by successive empire building. Beginning with the Neo-Assyrians in the tenth century BCE, new Iron Age empires expanded across Mesopotamia and the Levant, swallowing smaller kingdoms to form larger states. The most successful of these early Iron Age empires was the Achaemenid Persian empire (559-330 BCE) initiated by Great King Cyrus II (r. 559-529 BCE), known to history as Cyrus “the Great.” Despite having a wealth of pictorial evidence of Assyrian warfare, we have few accounts of the origin, course, and outcome of specific battles. We do, however, have more information concerning how the Achaemenid Persians fought on the battlefield, much of it coming again from Herodotus (484-425 BCE) and Xenophon (435-354 BCE), with both authors giving some indication of how the Achaemenid’s used tactics featuring military archery on the battlefield. ☞ Read the full article
FEATURE SERIES: EARLY NAPOLEONIC WARFARE: 1500-1815
EARLY MODERN AND NAPOLEONIC WARFARE: 1500-1815 · Published 27 September 2024 at 4:34pm EDT · COMMENT AND CONVERSATION
"Napoleon's Police: Control by Other Means" by Michael G. Stroud
ABOVE: Paris, France, 24 November 2015. Napoleon's Tomb at Les Invalides. Source: War History Network license. Click to enlarge.
The safety and security of a people is the bedrock of any successful society. To achieve this, structured governments establish laws to guide the society along with measures of policing to ensure that said laws are obeyed, be they the Constables of England to the police officers of the United States. French policing under Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) utilized various forces to not only maintain the peace and to enforce its laws, but to ensure compliance with edicts and proclamations. Policing and security in Napoleonic France and its territories was an evolved extension of governmental control to suppress and eliminate political dissent while enforcing Napoleon’s mandates. ☞ Read the full article
CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: THE NORTH AFRICA CAMPAIGN
NORTH AFRICA CAMPAIGN · Published 11 Nov 2022 at 2:45pm EDT · COMMENT
"8-16 November 1942: Operation Torch: The Allied Invasion of North Africa"
ABOVE: Douglas SBD-3 Dauntless scout bombers and Grumman F4F-4 Wildcat fighters on the flight deck of USS Santee (ACV-29) during Operation Torch. Note the yellow Operation Torch markings visible around the fuselage stars of some of these airplanes. Also note the distance and target information temporarily marked on the carrier's flight deck (80-K-15250). In the Public Domain; click to enlarge.
Initiated in November 1942, Operation Torch was conceived as a grand strategy to diminish Axis forces’ engagement on the Eastern Front, thereby alleviating the escalating pressure on the Soviet Union. This ambitious offensive represented a strategic compromise between the United States and Great Britain, with British authorities espousing apprehensions that a direct American-supported landing in Northern Europe would precipitate a premature and potentially catastrophic engagement. The operation was meticulously orchestrated to execute a pincer movement. Tasked with establishing bridgeheads on both the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts were the U.S. Western Task Force—targeting Safi, Fedala, and Mehdia–Port Lyautey in Morocco—and the Anglo-American Center and Eastern Task Forces—aiming for Oran and Algiers in Algeria, respectively. ☞ Read the full article
CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: WORLD WAR I
WORLD WAR I · Published 21 September 2023 at 9:51pm EDT · COMMENT
"11 November 1918: The Great War Ends and Another War Readies"
ABOVE: Photo Credit: USAMHI Marshal Foch's Train. This train car was used to hold negotiations with the Germans and where the armistice was signed at 5 a.m., on Nov. 11, 1918. (WWI Signal Corps Collection). This file is a work of a U.S. Army soldier or employee, taken or made as part of that person's official duties. As a work of the U.S. federal government, it is in the public domain in the United States. Source: Wikimedia. Click to enlarge.
The Armistice of 11 November 1918 marked a historic moment in world history, as it brought an end to the First World War, or World War I, that had ravaged large parts of Europe and beyond. The signing of the armistice was a significant moment for the Entente, which had been engaged in a bitter struggle against the Central Powers, led by Germany. The truce was signed at Le Francport near Compiegne, following negotiations initiated by the German government with the American President Woodrow Wilson. The basis for the ceasefire was the earlier declared "Fourteen Points" by President Wilson, which later formed the basis of the German surrender at the Paris Peace Conference the following year. ☞ Read the full article
CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: THE VIETNAM WAR ERA: 1955-1975
THE VIETNAM WAR ERA: 1955-1975 · Published 31 October 2023 at 8:50pm EDT · COMMENT
"14-18 November 1965: The U.S. Army's First Major Fight in Vietnam - The Battle of Ia Drang Valley"
ABOVE: 2nd Lt. R. C. "Rick" Rescorla moves carefully with fixed bayonet through the underbrush in an attack of North Vietnamese sniper pockets outside the American perimeter in the Ia Drang Valley on Nov. 16, 1965 during the Vietnam War. The soldier is a member of one of the hardest hit companies of the 1st Cavalry Division units. (AP Photo/Peter Arnett) In the Public Domain.
The Battle of Ia Drang was a significant engagement that is notable for being the first major battle between the United States Army and the People's Army of Vietnam. The battle was part of the Pleiku Campaign conducted early in the Vietnam War at the eastern foot of the Chu Pong Massif in the central highlands of Vietnam in 1965. The battle is significant because it set the blueprint for the Vietnam War, with the U.S. forces relying on air mobility, artillery fire, and close air support, while the PAVN neutralized that firepower by quickly engaging American forces at very close range. The Battle of Ia Drang formed part of the wider Operation Silver Bayonet, a US military offensive designed to search and destroy NVA forces in the central highlands of Vietnam. The goal of the operation was to clear the Chu Pong Massif, a range of hills located on the border of Vietnam and Cambodia, of NVA troops. ☞ Read the full article
CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: WAR IN THE PACIFIC
WAR IN THE PACIFIC · Published 4 August 2023 at 9:52pm EDT · COMMENT
"20-23 November 1943: Three Days of Hell - The Battle of Tarawa"
ABOVE: Marines Run Around Barbed Wire, Tarawa, November 1943. "Barbed Wire Doesn't Stop Them-A Marine with fixed bayonet leads others around a barbed wire entanglement on the beach at Tarawa as the Marines took the island. Grim determination is etched on the leader's face as he carries his rifle in the crook of his arm instead of in his wounded hand." From the Julian C. Smith Collection (COLL/202), Marine Corps Archives & Special Collections. OFFICIAL USMC PHOTOGRAPH
The Battle of Tarawa, fought on 20-23 November 1943, was another turning point in the Allied campaign against Japan during World War II. Tarawa, an atoll in the Gilbert Islands, was the most fortified island that the Americans attempted to invade during the Pacific Campaign. The Japanese garrison at Betio, the main island of Tarawa, was heavily fortified with concrete bunkers, seawalls, trenches, and an airstrip, supported by a variety of artillery including heavy and light machine guns and light tanks. Betio Island was tiny however at less than one square mile. Japanese Admiral Keiji Shibasaki was confident that the Americans couldn't take the island even with "a million men fighting for a hundred years could not take it." (Symonds 2018, 491) ☞ Read the full article
CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: THE KOREAN WAR 1950-1953
THE KOREAN WAR 1950-1953 · Published 11 Aug 2023 at 8:21pm EDT · COMMENT
"27 November 1950: 'Frozen Chosin' - The Battle of the Chosin Reservoir Begins"
ABOVE: Marines Clear a Ridge. 6 December 1950. Infantry of RCT-7 moving up a ridge to clear it of enemy." From the Oliver P. Smith Collection (COLL/213), Marine Corps Archives & Special Collections. OFFICIAL USMC PHOTOGRAPH.
The Battle of Chosin Reservoir took place in the harsh and freezing winter of 1950, when the People’s Volunteer Army (PVA) of China entered the war to counter the presence of United Nations Command (UNC) troops in North Korea. The Chinese force, numbering around 120,000, launched a surprise attack on the US X Corps, an element of the larger UNC contingent, that was stationed near the Chosin Reservoir. The battle had become one of the toughest and most infamous battles for the U.S. Marine Corps since World War II. Fought over brutal mountain terrain and extreme cold weather in North Korea, temperatures had reached -36 degrees Fahrenheit causing frostbite casualties. Controversy had come to shroud the fight at Chosin Reservoir, as most marines saw the drive to the Reservoir as a fatal error. Either a 'fighting retreat' or 'attack in another direction', the First Marine Division fought gallantly, fighting through seven Chinese divisions and elements of three others. ☞ Read the full article
CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: THE EASTERN FRONT - WORLD WAR II
THE EASTERN FRONT · Published 26 August 2023 at 9:23pm EDT · COMMENT
"30 November 1939 to 13 March 1940: Failed Cold-Weather Gamble: The Winter War between Finland and the Soviet Union"
ABOVE: A Finnish Maxim M/32-33 machine gun nest 100 metres from Soviet forces during the Winter War, located approximately 5 kilometres north of Lemetti (area of the modern Pitkyarantsky District, Russia). This photograph is in the public domain in Finland, because either a period of 50 years has elapsed from the year of creation or the photograph was first published before 1966.
The Winter War of 1939 between Finland and the Soviet Union raised many questions for both combatants. It started when the Soviet Union invaded Finland on 30 November 1939, just three months after the outbreak of World War II. The Soviet Union was seeking to expand its borders and establish a buffer zone for the city of Leningrad, which was under threat from the Finnish border. Despite the immense strength of the Soviet army and air force, they suffered severe losses and made little headway for the initial period of the war. This war raised many questions for both countries that had long-lasting implications for their political, economic, and social structures. ☞ Read the full article
CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: WAR IN THE PACIFIC
WAR IN THE PACIFIC · Published 4 December 2022 at 11:49am EDT · COMMENT
7 December 1941: Pearl Harbor attacked - America enters World War II The USS West Virginia at Pearl Harbor, 7 December 1941. Sailors rescuing a survivor from the water. The USS Tennessee is on the far side of the sunken battleship. Photo source: National WWII Museum. Click to enlarge.
29 November 1941, at sea in the Pacific aboard the USS Arizona
The nationally-ranked Navy Midshipmen football team was down 6-0 at halftime to the United States Military Academy at West Point. The 1941 inter-service rivalry was being played in front of 98,924 fans at Municipal Stadium on a sunny Saturday in Philadelphia. Lieutenant Commander Samuel Fuqua, Damage Control Officer for the USS Arizona, a ’23 graduate of the U.S. Naval Academy, listened intently to the football game in the Wardroom Officer’s Stateroom along with his friend Major Alan Shapley, USMC, aboard the Arizona. Shapley held a particular interest in the 1941 Army-Navy game. The major, current commander of the battleship’s Marine detachment was also an Annapolis graduate (Class of ’27) and former player on the Navy football team. The Midshipmen had never beaten Army during Shapley’s playing days, but the Marine officer was hopeful Navy’s current winning streak over Army would continue. (source: Scott Lyons monograph and Samuel Fuqua personal papers) ☞ Read the full article
CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: THE U.S. CIVIL WAR - 1861-1865
U.S. CIVIL WAR AND RECONSTRUCTION · Published 30 September 2023 at 3:25pm EDT · COMMENT
"11 December 1862: Failed Union Leadership in Virginia: The Battle of Fredericksburg Begins"
Battle of Fredericksburg: The Army of the Potomac crossing the Rappahannock: in the morning of December 13, 1862, under the command of Generals Burnside, Sumner, Hooker & Franklin. Kurz & Allison, Art Publishers, Chicago, U.S., copyrighted 1888. Source: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C. Public Domain (copyright expired). Click to enlarge.
The Battle of Fredericksburg was one of the bloodiest battles of the American Civil War, fought from 11 December to 15 December 1862, in and around Fredericksburg, Virginia. The Union army, led by General Ambrose Burnside, suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of Confederate General Robert E. Lee's forces. The battle was fought in the Eastern Theater of the Civil War, and the two armies represented the largest number of armed men that had ever confronted each other. The battle was fought between the Union Army of the Potomac, commanded by Major General Ambrose Burnside, and the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia, commanded by General Robert E. Lee. ☞ Read the full article
CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: WORLD WAR II - THE EUROPEAN THEATER
D-DAY AND THE EUROPEAN THEATER · Published 20 September 2023 at 9:27pm EDT · COMMENT AND CONVERSATION
"16 December 1944: Bitter Cold in the Ardennes Forest: Battle of the Bulge Begins"
Belgium, 31 December 1944. Soldiers of the U.S. 101st Airborne move out of Bastogne, after having been besieged there for 10 days, having been tasked with driving Wehrmacht troops out of the surrounding district. Photo from the U.S. Army Center of Military History. Click to enlarge.
The Battle of the Bulge, also known as the Ardennes Offensive, was a crucial moment in World War II’s Western Front. Occurring from December 1944 to January 1945, it was Hitler’s last-ditch attempt to turn the tide of the war around. The Allied forces had already achieved significant victories on the Western Front, and the Germans were on the retreat. The Allied forces' resilience during the battle, despite the losses incurred, signified important psychological victories. The German forces never regained their footing after the campaign, and it signaled the beginning of the end of the Second World War in Europe. ☞ Read the full article
CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: WORLD WAR I
WORLD WAR I · Published 16 December 2023 at 1:48pm EDT · COMMENT
24 December 1914: Allied and Central Powers Break for a Christmas Truce
Right: France, somewhere on the Western Front. December, 1914. Sharing a smoke. A German soldier and British soldier meet face-to-face in a Christmastime break from the war. Source: Library of Congress and in the Public Domain. Click to enlarge.
The Christmas Truce of 1914, an event that took place during World War I, is one of the most poignant and memorable moments of the war. In the midst of the fighting, soldiers on both sides of the Western Front, exhausted and cold from months of conflict, paused for a moment of peace and goodwill. Despite the efforts of the military authorities to prevent such a truce, the men on the front lines, driven by a shared humanity, broke ranks and came together in a unique display of fraternity. ☞ Read the ful article
CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: WAR IN THE PACIFIC
WAR IN THE PACIFIC · Published 3 September 2023 at 12:34pm EDT · COMMENT
"26 December 1943-16 January 1944: Green Hell - The Battle of Cape Gloucester"
ABOVE: U.S. Marine Corps infantry march through Cape Gloucester. Cape Gloucester USMC Photo No. 2. From the Frederick R. Findtner Collection (COLL/3890), Marine Corps Archives & Special Collections. OFFICIAL USMC PHOTOGRAPH.
On the second day after D-day, the action report of 27 December read "'Rains continued for the next five days. Water backed up in the swamps in rear of the shoreline, making them impassable for wheeled and tracked vehicles. The many streams which emptied into the sea in the beachhead area became raging torrents. Some even changed course. Troops were soaked to the skin and their clothes never dried out during the entire operation.' These are comments from the action report." Such was the setting for the Battle of Cape Gloucester between the Japanese and Allied forces on the island of New Britain, Territory of New Guinea, from 26 December 1943 to 16 January 1944. For the U.S. Marines who fought and suffered at Cape Gloucester, the men "remember the place more for the jungle than for the Japanese." (McMillan 1949, 175-177) ☞ Read the full article
CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: WORLD WAR II
WAR IN THE PACIFIC · Published 24 November 2023 at 8:09pm EDT · COMMENTS AND CONVERSTION
"9 January 1945: Beginning of the End in the Philippines: The Battle of Luzon Begins"
Luzon, Philippines, 1945. U.S. Army infantry squad advancing with Sherman tank armored support. Source: U.S. National Archives, Public Domain. Click to enlarge.
In the early months of 1942, the Japanese Army successfully invaded and conquered all areas of the Philippines. However, the tide of the war shifted when Allied forces launched a daring amphibious operation on the island of Leyte on 20 October 1944. This was a pivotal moment in the ongoing battle for the Philippines, as it marked the beginning of a concerted effort to liberate the country from Japanese occupation. The mission involved significant strategic planning and the coordination of troops, ships, and aircraft from multiple countries, and the result was a decisive victory for the Allies that helped to turn the tide of the war in the Pacific. ☞ Read the full article
CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: LENINGRAD AND THE EASTERN FRONT
THE EASTERN FRONT · Published 14 October 2023 at 7:33pm EDT · COMMENT
"27 January 1944: 872 Days of Starvation and Death - The Siege of Leningrad Ends"
Right: Leningrad, Soviet Union. September 1941. German soldiers in front of burning houses and a church. Source: Wikimedia. Click to enlarge.
The Siege and Battle for Leningrad (8 September 1941 – 27 January 1944) were events of enormous significance, yet they are often overlooked in the history of World War II. This was a microcosm of the War on the Eastern Front, an epic clash that had far-reaching implications for both the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany. In September 1941, Nazi Germany launched Operation Barbarossa, with the primary objective of capturing Leningrad, which was situated in the north. Hitler's strategy was to clear his Baltic flank and link up with Finnish troops, downplaying the importance of Moscow despite the objections of his army commanders. Army Group North's goal was to encircle, blockade, starve and ultimately destroy and level the city. ☞ Read the full article
CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: THE HOLOCAUST, SHOAH
THE HOLOCAUST "SHOAH" · Published 25 October 2023 at 8:20pm EDT · COMMENTS AND CONVO
"27 January 1945: Auschwitz is Liberated by the Soviet Red Army"
ABOVE: Wearing adult-size prisoner jackets, child survivors of Auschwitz are led by relief workers and Soviet soldiers through a narrow passage between two barbed-wire fences. Standing next to the nurse are Miriam and Eva Mozes. Behind them (wearing white hats) are Judy and Lea Csenghery. Both sets of sisters are twins. From the Soviet film of the liberation of Auschwitz, taken by the film unit of the First Ukrainian Front. Photo Source: Wytwornia Filmow Dokumentalnych i Fabularnych. Copyright: Public Domain. Click to enlarge.
On 27 January 1945, the Soviet army entered Auschwitz concentration camp and liberated around 7,000 prisoners still alive in the Main Camp, Birkenau, and Monowitz. For years, this complex had served as a killing center for Nazi Germany, where over 1.1 million people had been murdered, mostly Jews. The prisoners who were mostly ill and dying greeted them as true liberators. This historic moment marked the end of the deadliest phase of the Holocaust, which saw millions of Jews and others brutally killed by Nazi Germany between 1940 and 1945. ☞ Read the full article
CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: THE VIETNAM WAR: 1955-75
THE VIETNAM WAR: 1955-75 · Published 12 November 2023 at 2:21pm EDT · COMMENTS AND CONVERSATION
"21 January 1968: Fighting in the Hills - The Battle of Khe Sanh begins"
Khe Sanh, January 1968. CH-46A Sea Knight helicopters drop U.S. Marines at Khe Sanh Combat Base. Public Domain, click to enlarge.
The Battle of Khe Sanh, which took place in the Khe Sanh area of northwestern Quảng Trị Province, Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam), during the Vietnam War, is often considered one of the most significant battles of the conflict. The battle was fought from 21 January to 9 July 1968, between two divisional-size elements of the North Vietnamese People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) and two regiments of the United States Marine Corps (6000 strong), with support from the United States Army, the U.S. Air Force, and a small number of Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) troops. ☞ Read the full article
CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: WORLD WAR II
WAR IN THE PACIFIC · Published 27 October 2023 at 9:26pm EDT · COMMENT
"31 January 1944: Island Hopping - The Battle of Kwajalein"
ABOVE: Marine infantry fighting their way inland. Kwajalein USMC Photo No. K-20. From the Frederick R. Findtner Collection (COLL/3890), Marine Corps Archives & Special Collections. OFFICIAL USMC PHOTOGRAPH. Click to enlarge.
The Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign marked a significant chapter in the Pacific theatre of World War II, with a series of battles spanning from August 1942 to February 1944. Led by the United States Pacific Fleet and Marine Corps, the primary objective was to establish airfields and naval bases, vital for air and naval support operations across the Central Pacific. Under the code names Operation Galvanic, Kourbash, Flintlock and Catchpole, the campaign involved seizing control of strategic locations such as Tarawa, Makin, Kwajalein, Eniwetok and Majuro. The fiercely fought battles during the Battle of Tarawa on 20–23 November and the Battle of Makin on 20–24 November 1943 were particularly significant, with several military tactics and warfare strategies employed. The successful seizing of these islands allowed the United States to establish a firm foothold in the Central Pacific, paving the way for further missions and ultimately, contributing to the outcome of the overall Pacific theatre of World War II. ☞ Read the full article
CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: THE VIETNAM WAR
THE VIETNAM WAR: 1955-75 · Published 10 November 2023 at 7:41pm EDT · COMMENTS AND CONVERSATION
31 January 1968: The War in Vietnam Turns - The Battle of Hue Begins"
Hue, South Vietnam, 4 February 1968: U.S. Marine infantry firing from cover behind a wall, keeping low from NVA sniper fire. Possibly at the Citadel. Public Domain, click to enlarge.
The Battle of Hue, also known as the Siege of Hue, was one of the most significant and bloody events of the Vietnam War. The intense fighting between the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces, and U.S. Marines and Army soldiers and ARVN (South Vietnamese troops) lasted from 31 January to 2 March 1968, resulting in the death of thousands of soldiers and civilians. This battle challenged the confidence of the American public, who increasingly questioned the U.S. military involvement in the conflict. ☞ Read the full article
CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: WORLD WAR II
WAR IN NORTH AFRICA · Published 23 November 2023 at 8:46pm EDT · COMMENT
"19-24 February 1943: First Blood - The Battle of Kasserine Pass"
North Africa, Tunis.- Field Marshal Erwin Rommel (saluting with marshal's baton) and Lieutenant Colonel Fritz Bayerlein, standing in the car, passing motorized troops, including soldiers in captured American half-track M3. Source: Wikipemia, Public Domain. Click to enlarge. The Battle of Kasserine Pass in Tunisia was a significant moment during World War II as it marked the first major engagement between American and German forces. The Kasserine Pass was a critical point of convergence for the Allied supply lines, which were essential for the success of the North African campaign. The battle took place in Tunisia on 14 February 1943 and was a resounding defeat for the United States Army. The German offensive, led by Field Marshal Erwin Rommel, was a prelude to a series of clashes that became known as the Battle of Kasserine Pass, which lasted for one week. The battle was a sobering moment for the Allied forces, as it exposed the weaknesses in their strategy, chain of supply, and military tactics. ☞ Read the full article
CENTURIES OF WAR CALENDAR: THE VIETNAM WAR
THE VIETNAM WAR · Published 9 December 2023 at 2:16pm EDT · COMMENT
"22 February 1967: Operation Junction City - The First U.S. Army Combat Airborne Operation in Vietnam Begins"
Tay Ninh City, Vietnam 1967. Operation Junction City was the largest U.S. operation of the Vietnam War to "find and break the spine of the Viet Cong, destroy the headquarters," focusing on one target, the northern base of Tay Ninh. The operation was divided into two waves. Source: Public Domain. Click to enlarge.
Operation Junction City was an 82-day military operation that took place during the Vietnam War in 1967. The operation was a joint effort between United States and Republic of Vietnam (RVN) forces aimed at locating the elusive Communist uprising in South Vietnam, the Central Office of South Vietnam. The operation involved the equivalent of nearly three divisions of U.S. troops and was the first U.S. combat airborne operation since the Korean War. The grand tactical plan for Junction City involved a "hammer and anvil" tactic, with airborne forces "flushing out" the VC headquarters and driving it against a prepared "anvil" of other forces. The U.S. forces included most of the 1st Infantry Division and the 25th Infantry Division, including the airborne troops of the 173rd Airborne Brigade and large armored elements of the 11th Armored Cavalry Regiment. ☞ Read the full article
LEYDEKKERS PHOTOGRAPHY
ABOVE: Treblinka memorial site, Poland. September 2024. Photography and research visit by Erwin Leydekkers. Learn more about Treblinka and the site here.
Erwin Leydekkers' Portfolio:
American Cemetery Normandy · Auschwitz Birkenau · The Bedford Boys · Belgium · Berchtesgaden and The Eagle's Nest · Buchenwald · Dieppe, France · Equipment · Finland · Germany · The Great War · Holland · The Holocaust · Hong Kong · Italy · Juno Beach · La Cambe German War Cemetery · Landsberg Prison · Battle of Monte Cassino · Militracks 2023 · Museums · Netherlands · Normandy 2023 · Normandy 2024 · Normandy, France · Omaha Beach · Operation Market Garden · Pointe du Hoc · Resistance Museum (Verzetsmuseum Amsterdam) · The Somme · Spottinger Cemetery · Vimy Ridge · Waterloo · War Museum Medemblik · World War II Veterans
LECTURES & DISCUSSIONS
THE EDGE OF HISTORY
Ancient, Classical and Medieval Military History: Popular History
PROF. BRIAN TODD CAREY'S OPEN SEMINARS & ARTICLES
Ancient Military History: c.3100-c.1000 BCE
Classical Military History: c.1000-BCE-500 CE
Medieval Military History: c.500-c.1500
EARLY MODERN ERA
Early Modern and Napoleonic Wars: 1500-1815
AMERICAN REVOLUTIONARY PERIODS
Mexican-American War: 1846-1848
Revolutionary War: 1775-1783
War of 1812
All 18th and 19th Century Conflict
U.S. CIVIL WAR & RECONSTRUCTION
U.S. Civil War: 1861-1865
WORLD WAR I & THE INTERWAR YEARS
World War I: 1914-1918
The Gathering Storm: 1919-1939
WORLD WAR II
North Africa and Italy
Battle of the Seas
China-Burma-India Theatre
D-Day and the European Theatre
The Eastern Front
The Holocaust, the Shoah
The Pacific Theatre
KOREA
The Korean War: 1950-1953
VIETNAM, LAOS & CAMBODIA
Vietnam War Era: 1955-1975
MODERN WAR & CONFLICT
Modern War and Conflict: 1976-Present
SEE ALSO
Aerial Warfare Throughout History
Book Forum and Book Reviews
The Home Front
War in Film and Movie Reviews
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BOOK REVIEWS
All Behind You, Winston: Churchill's Great Coalition 1940-45
by Roger Hermiston, author
Posted by Jim Gallen on 5 October 2024 at 10:34pm
Foreign enemies can unite political foes. One such instance is chronicled in All Behind You Winston: Churchill’s Great Coalition 1940-45. This volume documents the consensus and disputes, initiatives advanced and those deferred, and the leaders of each party who kept their own ranks in harness. Unique for this war is the national union coalition that ruled Britain for most of World War II. ☞ Read the full review · ALL BOOK REVIEWS
TOP RELEASES OF 2024
Wars of the Mexican Gulf: The Breakaway Republics of Texas and Yucatan, US Mexican War, and Limits of Empire 1835-1850
Benjamin J Swenson (Author)
Publisher: Casemate. Publication date: November 2024. Hardcover, 272 pages. ISBN-10 9781399033701
From the publisher: "One nation in turmoil, another seeking aggrandizement, smaller states jostling for security, mercenary expeditions, and political and racial armed struggles breaking out. In 1835 the northern Mexican state of Texas declared its independence and won it after defeating General Santa Anna’s forces at the Battle of San Jacinto."
The Eagles of Bastogne: The Untold Story of the Heroic Defense of a City Under Siege
by Martin King (Author), Michael Collins, Lt. Patrick Seeling, and Ronald Stassen
Publisher: Casemate. Publication date: 31 May 2024. Hardcover, 272 pages. ISBN-10 1636244130
From the publisher: "There are few names in the annals of military history that evoke such emotion, and in some cases controversy, as the small Belgian town of Bastogne. The 101st Airborne are the best known defenders of Bastogne, but they only constituted one third of the eventual force that saved the city from total annihilation."
The Light of Battle: Eisenhower, D-Day, and the Birth of the American Superpower
by Michel Paradis (Author)
Publisher: Mariner Books. Publication date: 4 June 2024. Hardcover, 528 pages. ISBN-10 0358682371
From the publisher: On June 6, 1944, General Dwight Eisenhower addressed the thousands of American troops preparing to invade Normandy, exhorting them to embrace the “Great Crusade” they faced. Then, in a fleeting moment alone, he drafted a resignation letter in case the invasion failed."
American Civil Wars: A Continental History, 1850-1873
by Alan Taylor (Author)
Publisher: W. W. Norton & Company. Publication date: 21 May 2024. Hardcover, 560 pages. ISBN-10 1324035285
From the publisher: "A masterful history of the Civil War and its reverberations across the continent by a two-time Pulitzer Prize winner. In a fast-paced narrative of soaring ideals and sordid politics, of civil war and foreign invasion, the award-winning historian Alan Taylor presents a pivotal twenty-year period in which North America’s three largest countries―the United States, Mexico, and Canada―all transformed themselves into nations."
Fifty-Three Days on Starvation Island: The World War II Battle That Saved Marine Corps Aviation
by John R Bruning (Author)
Publisher: Hachette Books. Publication date: 14 May 2024. Hardcover, 528 pages. ISBN-10-0316508659
From the publisher: "On August 20, 1942, twelve Marine dive-bombers and nineteen Marine fighters landed at Guadalcanal. Their mission: defeat the Japanese navy and prevent it from sending more men and supplies to "Starvation Island," as Guadalcanal was nicknamed."
Warfare in the Age of Crusades: Europe
by Brian Todd Carey (Author) and Joshua B Allfree
Publication date: 18 January 2024 by Pen & Sword Military. 272 pages, hardcover.
From the publisher: "Warfare in the Age of Crusades: Europe explores in fascinating detail the key campaigns, battles and sieges that shaped the crusading period in Europe during the Middle Ages, giving special attention to military technologies, tactics and strategies."
The Dawn of Guerrilla Warfare: Why the Tactics of Insurgents against Napoleon Failed in the US Mexican War
by Benjamin J Swenson (Author)
Publication date: 30 January 2024 by Pen and Sword Military. Hardcover, 232 pages.
From the publisher: "While one military empire in Europe lay in ruins, another awakened in North America. During the Peninsular War (1808-1814) the Spanish launched an unprecedented guerrilla insurgency undermining Napoleon’s grip on that state and ultimately hastening the destruction of the French Army in Europe."
Gustavus v Wallenstein: Military Revolution, Rivalry and Tragedy in the Thirty Years War
by John Pike (Author)
Publisher: Pen and Sword Military. Publication date: May 31, 2024. Hardcover, 544 pages. ISBN-10 1399012657
From the publisher, "The conflict, personal rivalry and contrast in personality, generalship and command, between the two iconic commanders in the Thirty Years War, King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden for the Protestant powers, and Albrecht von Wallenstein, Duke of Friedland."
This Fierce People: The Untold Story of America's Revolutionary War in the South
by Alan Pell Crawford (Author)
Publisher: Knopf. Publication date: July 2, 2024. Hardcover, 400 pages. ISBN-10 0593318501
From the publisher, "The famous battles that form the backbone of the story put forth of American independence—at Lexington and Concord, Brandywine, Germantown, Saratoga, and Monmouth—while crucial, did not lead to the surrender at Yorktown. It was in the three-plus years between Monmouth and Yorktown that the war was won."
The House of War: The Struggle between Christendom and Islam
by Simon Mayall (Author)
Publisher: Osprey Publishing. Publication date: September 10, 2024. Hardcover, 352 pages. ISBN-10 1472864336
From the publisher, "From the taking of Jerusalem in the 7th century AD 638 by Caliph Umar, to the collapse of the Ottoman Empire following the end of World War I, Christian popes, emperors and kings, and Muslim caliphs and sultans were locked in a 1300-year battle for political, military, ideological, economic and religious supremacy."
Taking London: Winston Churchill and the Fight to Save Civilization
by Martin Dugard (Author)
Publisher: Dutton. Publication date: June 11, 2024. Hardcover, 352 pages. ISBN-10 0593473213
From the publisher, "Great Britain, summer 1940. The Battle of France is over. The Battle of Britain is about to begin. Adolf Hitler’s powerful armies control Europe. England stands alone against this juggernaut, the whole world knowing it is only a matter of time before Nazi Germany unleashes its military might on the island nation. In London, a new prime minister named Winston Churchill is determined to defeat the Nazi menace, no matter the costs."
Why War?
by Richard Overy Ph.D. (Author)
Publisher: W. W. Norton & Company. Publication date: June 4, 2024. Hardcover, 304 pages. ISBN-10 1324021748
From the publisher: "Richard Overy is not the first scholar to take up the title question. In 1931, at the request of the League of Nations, Albert Einstein asked Sigmund Freud to collaborate on a short work examining whether there was “a way of delivering mankind from the menace of war.”
The Eastern Front: A History of the Great War, 1914-1918
by Nick Lloyd (Author)
Publisher: W. W. Norton & Company. Publication date: August 27, 2024. Hardcover, 608 pages. ISBN-10 1324092718
From the publisher: "Writing in the 1920s, Winston Churchill claimed that the First World War on the Eastern Front was “incomparably the greatest war in history.” In The Eastern Front, the second volume of his trilogy on the war, historian Nick Lloyd demonstrates that the conflict in the East was more fluid than that in the West, but no less deadly."
We Dared to Fly: Dangerous Secret Missions During the Vietnam War
by William Reeder Jr. (Author)
Publisher: Lyons Press. Publication date: Novermber 5, 2024. Hardcover, 272 pages. ISBN-10 1493085301
From the publisher: "We Dared to Fly is the true story of the young men who risked their lives daily on classified missions deep behind enemy lines during the Vietnam War. The Army aviators and enlisted observers assigned to the 131st Surveillance Airplane Company, call sign Iron Spud, flew the Grumman OV-1 Mohawk into the jaws of death to capture timely intelligence for top military decision makers and senior national officials."
Emperor of the Seas: Kublai Khan and the Making of China
by Jack Weatherford (Author)
Publisher: Bloomsbury Continuum. Publication date: October 29, 2024. Hardcover, 352 pages. ISBN-10 1399417738
From the publisher: "Genghis Khan built a formidable land empire, but he never crossed the sea. Yet by the time his grandson Khublai Khan had defeated the last vestiges of the Song empire and established the Yuan dynasty in 1279, the Mongols controlled the most powerful navy in the world."
Alexander at the End of the World: The Forgotten Final Years of Alexander the Great
by Rachel Kousser (Author)
Publisher: Mariner Books. Publication date: July 16, 2024. Hardcover, 432 pages. ISBN-10 006286968X
From the publisher: "By 330 B.C.E., Alexander the Great had reached the pinnacle of success. Or so it seemed. He had defeated the Persian ruler Darius III and seized the capital city of Persepolis. His exhausted and traumatized soldiers were ready to return home to Macedonia."
1217: The Battles that Saved England
by Catherine Hanley (Author), Tina Ross (Cartographer)
Publisher: Osprey Publishing. Publication date: May 7, 2024. Hardcover, 304 pages. ISBN-13 978-1472860873
From the publisher: "In 1215 King John had agreed to the terms of Magna Carta, but he then reneged on his word, plunging the kingdom into war. The rebellious barons offered the throne to the French prince Louis and set off the chain of events that almost changed the course of English history."
Warsaw Testament
by Rokhl Auerbach (Author), Samuel Kassow (Translator)
Publisher: White Goat Press. Publication date: May 7, 2024. Hardcover, 423 pages. ISBN-13 979-8988677390
From the publisher: "Born in Lanowitz, a small village in rural Podolia, Rokhl Auerbach was a journalist, literary critic, memoirist, and a member of the Warsaw Yiddish literary community before the Holocaust. Upon the German invasion and occupation of Poland in 1939, she was tasked by historian and social activist Emanuel Ringelblum to run a soup kitchen for the starving inhabitants of the Warsaw Ghetto and later to join his top-secret ghetto archive, the Oyneg Shabes."
Historicism and Its Problems: The Logical Problem of the Philosophy of History
by Ernst Troeltsch (Author), Garrett E. Paul (Translator), James David Reid (Translator)
Publisher: Fortress Press. Publication date: October 1, 2024. Hardcover, 925 pages. ISBN-13 979-8889831402
From the publisher: "This is a translation of Ernst Troeltsch's last (1923) major work. It is an exhaustive study of the methods of historiography and of German, French, English, and Italian philosophies of history during the nineteenth century."
Mr. Churchill in the White House: The Untold Story of a Prime Minister and Two Presidents
by Robert Schmuhl (Author)
Publisher: Liveright. Publication date: July 2, 2024. Hardcover, 352 pages. ISBN-10 1324093420
From the publisher: "Scores of biographies have been written about Winston Churchill, yet none examine his frequent, sometimes furtive, trips to the White House, where he resided for weeks on end―the (often unclothed) visitor who “dropped out of the sky.”
The Vietnam War: A Military History
by Geoffrey Wawro (Author)
Publisher: Basic Books. Publication date: October 1, 2024. Hardcover, 656 pages. ISBN-10 1541606086
From the publisher: "The Vietnam War cast a shadow over the American psyche from the moment it began. In its time it sparked budget deficits, campus protests, and an erosion of US influence around the world. Long after the last helicopter evacuated Saigon, Americans have continued to battle over whether it was ever a winnable war."
Hitler's Deserters: Breaking Ranks with the Wehrmacht
by Douglas Carl Peifer (Author)
Publisher: Oxford University Press. Publication date: January 7, 2025. Hardcover, 336 pages. ISBN-10 0197539661
From the publisher: "The German military executed between 18,000 and 22,000 of its personnel in World War II on the charges of desertion and "undermining the military spirt." This book examines who these Wehrmacht deserters were, why they deserted, what punishment they could expect, and how German military justice operated. The German army was not apolitical, but rather a pillar of the Nazi state."
The Deerfield Massacre: A Surprise Attack, a Forced March, and the Fight for Survival in Early America
by James L. Swanson (Author)
Publisher: Scribner. Publication date: February 27, 2024. Hardcover, 336 pages. ISBN-10 1501108166
From the publisher: "Once it was one of the most infamous events in early American history. Today, it has been nearly forgotten. In an obscure, two-hundred-year-old museum in a little town in western Massachusetts there stands what once was the most revered relic from the history of early New England: the massive, tomahawk-scarred door that came to symbolize the notorious Deerfield Massacre of 1704."
A Day in September: The Battle of Antietam and the World It Left Behind
by Stephen Budiansky (Author)
Publisher: W. W. Norton & Company. Publication date: September 3, 2024. Hardcover, 304 pages. ISBN-10 1324035757
From the publisher: "The Battle of Antietam, which took place on September 17, 1862, remains the single bloodiest day in America’s history. As a turning point in the Civil War, the narrow Union victory was the key catalyst for Lincoln to issue his Emancipation Proclamation. Yet Antietam was not only a battle that dramatically changed the fortunes and meaning of the war; it also changed America in ways we feel today."
Making Makers: The Past, the Present, and the Study of War
by Michael P. M. Finch (Author)
Publisher: Oxford University Press. Publication date: July 11, 2024. Hardcover, 288 pages. ISBN -10 0192867121
From the publisher: "Making Makers presents a comprehensive history of a seminal work of scholarship which has exerted a persistent attraction for scholars of war and strategy: Makers of Modern Strategy. It reveals the processes by which scholars conceived and devised the book, considering both successful and failed attempts to make and remake the work across the twentieth century, and illuminating its impact and legacy."
The First Cold War: Anglo-Russian Relations in the 19th Century
by Barbara Emerson (Author)
Publisher: Hurst. Publication date: August 1, 2024. Hardcover, 391 pages. ISBN -10 180526057X
From the publisher: "Britain and Russia maintained a frosty civility for a few years after Napoleon's defeat in 1815. But, by the 1820s, their relations degenerated into constant acrimonious rivalry over Persia, the Ottoman Empire, Central Asia--the Great Game--and, towards the end of the century, East Asia."
Henry V: The Astonishing Triumph of England's Greatest Warrior King
by Dan Jones (Author)
Publisher: Viking. Publication date: October 1, 2024. Hardcover, 432 pages. ISBN -10 0593652738
From the publisher: "In 1413, when Henry V ascended to the English throne, his kingdom was hopelessly torn apart by political faction and partisanship. Public finances and law and order were in a state of crisis. Pirates tormented the coast; plots, conspiracies, and heresy threatened society."
The Crusader States and their Neighbours: A Military History, 1099-1187
by Dr Nicholas Morton (Author)
Publisher: Oxford University Press. Publication date: March 14, 2024. Hardcover, 320 pages. ISBN -10 019887880X
From the publisher: "The Crusader States and their Neighbours (Winner, The Verbruggen Prize, The Society for Medieval Military History) explores the military history of the Medieval Near East, piecing together the fault-lines of conflict which entangled this much-contested region."
Beyond Ukraine: Debating the Future of War
by Tim Sweijs (Editor), Jeffrey H. Michaels (Editor), Christopher Coker (Afterword)
Publisher: Oxford University Press. Publication date: August 1, 2024. Hardcover, 432 pages. ISBN -10 0197790240
From the publisher: "Across the ages, policymakers, military professionals and scholars have sought answers to the question: what does the future of war look like? Often, when the next war does come along, there is a significant chasm between expectations and reality."
44 Days in Prague: The Runciman Mission and the Race to Save Europe
by Ann Shukman (Author)
Publisher: Oxford University Press. Publication date: May 1, 2024. Hardcover, 288 pages. ISBN -10 0197786359
From the publisher: "After discovering that her grandmother had pro-German sympathies, Ann Shukman resolved to investigate her grandfather Walter Runciman's 1938 Mission to Prague. This government-sponsored British delegation sought to broker peace between the Czechoslovak republic and its Sudeten German minority--a dispute that Hitler was aggravating with virulent anti-Czech propaganda and threats of invasion."
Harfleur to Hamburg: Five Centuries of English and British Violence in Europe
by DJB Trim (Editor), Brendan Simms (Editor)
Publisher: Oxford University Press. Publication date: June 15, 2024. Hardcover, 336 pages. ISBN -10 0197784208
From the publisher: "Britain has historically been seen as an upholder of international norms, at least in its relations with western powers. This has often been contrasted with the violence perpetrated in colonial contexts on other continents. What is often missed, however, is the extent to which the state with its capital in London--first England, then Great Britain--inflicted extreme violence on its European neighbors, even when still using the rhetoric of neighborliness and friendship."
The Compleat Victory: Saratoga and the American Revolution (Pivotal Moments in American History)
by Kevin J. Weddle (Author)
Publisher: Oxford University Press. Publication date: May 21, 2024. Softcover, 544 pages. ISBN -13 978-0197695166
From the publisher: "In The Compleat Victory, award-winning military historian Kevin J. Weddle traces an epic panorama of strategy and chance--from London, to Quebec, to Philadelphia, to New York--that ultimately led to the decisive conclusion at Saratoga. In the late summer and fall of 1777, after two years of indecisive fighting on both sides, the outcome of the American War of Independence hung in the balance. "
Conquering the Ocean: The Roman Invasion of Britain (Ancient Warfare and Civilization)
by Richard Hingley (Author)
Publisher: Oxford University Press. Publication date: June 1, 2024. Softcover, 336 pages. ISBN -13 978-0197776896
From the publisher: "Why did Julius Caesar come to Britain? His own account suggests that he invaded to quell a resistance of Gallic sympathizers in the region of modern-day Kent -- but there must have been personal and divine aspirations behind the expeditions in 55 and 54 BCE."
Endgame 1944: How the Soviet Army Won World War Two
by Jonathan Dimbleby (Author)
Publisher: Oxford University Press. Publication date: June 3, 2024. Hardcover, 640 pages. ISBN -10 0197765319
From the publisher: "The year 1944 was the turning point of World War Two, and nowhere was this more evident than on the Eastern Front. For three years, following the onslaught of the German Army during Operation Barbarossa in June 1941, the Red Army had retreated and then eventually held, fighting to a stalemate while the Germans occupied and ravaged large parts of the Soviet Union and its republics."
Aces at Kursk: The Battle for Aerial Supremacy on the Eastern Front, 1943
by Christopher A Lawrence (Author)
Publication date: 8 March 2024 by Casemate. Hardcover, 392 pages.
From the publisher: "The Battle of Kursk in July 1943 is known for being the largest tank battle in history. A Russian victory, it marked the decisive end of the German offensive capability on the Eastern Front and set the scene for the Soviet successes that followed. While many have focused on the tank engagements, especially the Battle of Prokhorovka, there was an intense air battle going on overhead that was bigger than the Battle of Britain."
Generals and Admirals of the Third Reich For Country or Fuehrer: Volume 1: A–G
By James "Jack" Webb
Publication date: February 2024 by Casemate. Hardcover, 384 pages.
From the publisher: "This three-volume set offers concise biographical information for over five thousand generals and admirals of the Third Reich. It covers all branches of service, ordered alphabetically and provides a brief, though scholarly, overview of each individual, including personal details and dates for all attachments to unit, and medals awarded, offering a readily accessible go-to reference work for all World War II researchers and historians."
World of War: A History of American Warfare from Jamestown to the War on Terror
by William Nester (Author)
Publication date: January 16, 2024 by Stackpole Books. Hardcover, 472 pages.
From the publisher: "World of War is an epic journey through America’s array of wars for diverse reasons with diverse results over the course of its existence. It reveals the crucial effects of brilliant, mediocre, and dismal military and civilian leaders; the dynamic among America’s expanding economic power, changing technologies, and the types and settings of its wars; and the human, financial, and moral costs to the nation, its allies, and its enemies."
A Nasty Little War: The Western Intervention into the Russian Civil War
by Anna Reid (Author)
Publication date: February 6, 2024 by Basic Books. Hardcover, 400 pages.
From the publisher: "Overlapping with and overshadowed by the First World War, the Allied Intervention in the Russian Civil War was one of the most ambitious military ventures of the twentieth century. Launched in the summer of 1918, it drew in 180,000 troops from fifteen different countries in theaters ranging from the Caspian Sea to the Arctic, and from Poland to the Pacific."
General J. E. B. Stuart: The Soldier and the Man
by Edward G. Longacre (Author)
Publication date: February 15, 2024 by Savas Beatie. Hardcover, 504 pages.
From the publisher: "Fifteen years have passed since the publication of the last full-length biography of Jeb Stuart. Several have appeared during the last century, each lauding his contributions to Confederate fortunes in the Eastern Theater. These studies follow a familiar postwar tradition established by hero-worshipping subordinates portraying its subject as a model of chivalric conduct with a romantic’s outlook on life and a sense of fair dealing and goodwill, even toward his enemy."
